skepticism
American Heritage Dictionary:
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skep·ti·cism
also scep·ti·cism (skĕp'tĭ-sĭz'əm) 
n.
n.
- A doubting or questioning attitude or state of mind; dubiety. See synonyms at uncertainty.
- Philosophy.
- The ancient school of Pyrrho of Elis that stressed the uncertainty of our beliefs in order to oppose dogmatism.
- The doctrine that absolute knowledge is impossible, either in a particular domain or in general.
- A methodology based on an assumption of doubt with the aim of acquiring approximate or relative certainty.
- Doubt or disbelief of religious tenets.
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
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skepticism
Philosophical doubting of knowledge claims in various areas. From ancient to modern times, skeptics have challenged accepted views in metaphysics, science, morals, and religion. Pyrrhon of Elis ( 360272 ) sought mental peace by avoiding commitment to any particular view; his approach gave rise in the lst century to Pyrrhonism, proponents of which sought to achieve suspension of judgment by systematically opposing various knowledge claims. One of its later leaders, Sextus Empiricus (2nd or 3rd century ), strove for a state of imperturbability. Modern skeptical philosophers include Michel de Montaigne, Pierre Bayle, and David Hume.
For more information on skepticism, visit Britannica.com.
Roget's Thesaurus:
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skepticism
also scepticism
noun
- A lack of conviction or certainty: doubt, doubtfulness, dubiety, dubiousness, incertitude, mistrust, question, suspicion, uncertainty, wonder. See certain/uncertain.
Oxford Companion to French Literature:
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Scepticism
Important philosophical movement which emerged in the 16th c. as a major opponent of Aristotelianism and contributed significantly to its demise and, indirectly, to the development of the scientific revolution in the 17th c. It impinges on French writing in its most influential form as Pyrrhonism.
[Ian Maclean]
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy:
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scepticism
(Greek, skepsis, enquiry or questioning) Although Greek scepticism centred on the value of enquiry and questioning, scepticism is now the denial that knowledge or even rational belief is possible, either about some specific subject-matter (e.g. ethics) or in any area whatsoever. Classically, scepticism springs from the observation that the best methods in some area seem to fall short of giving us contact with the truth (e.g. there is a gulf between appearance and reality), and it frequently cites the conflicting judgements that our methods deliver, with the result that questions of truth become undecidable. In classical thought the various examples of this conflict were systematized in the ten tropes of Aenesidemus. The scepticism of Pyrrho and the new Academy was a system of argument and indeed ethics opposed to dogmatism, and particularly to the philosophical system-building of the Stoics. As it has come down to us, particularly in the writings of Sextus Empiricus, its method was typically to cite reasons for finding an issue undecidable (sceptics devoted particular energy to undermining the Stoic conception of some truths as delivered by direct apprehension or katalepsis). As a result the sceptic counsels epochē or the suspension of belief, and then goes on to celebrate a way of life whose object was ataraxia, or the tranquillity resulting from such suspension of belief. The process is frequently mocked, for instance in the stories recounted by Diogenes Laertius that Pyrrho had to be restrained from sublimely walking over precipices, leaving stuck people in bogs, and so on, since his method denied him confidence that there existed the precipice or the bog (the legends may have arisen from a misunderstanding of Aristotle, Metaphysics G, iv. 1008 b where Aristotle argues that since sceptics don't do such things, they actually accept the doctrines they pretend to reject). In fact ancient sceptics allowed confidence in ‘phenomena’, reserving their scepticism for more theoretical confidences, but quite how much fell under the heading of phenomena is not always clear.
Sceptical tendencies emerged in the 14th-century writings of Nicholas of Autrecourt (fl. 1340). His criticisms of any certainty beyond the immediate deliverance of the senses and basic logic, and in particular of any knowledge of either intellectual or material substances, anticipate the later scepticism of Bayle and Hume. The latter distinguishes between Pyrrhonistic or excessive scepticism, which he regarded as unlivable, and the more mitigated scepticism which accepts everyday or common-sense beliefs (albeit not as the delivery of reason, but as due more to custom and habit), but is duly wary of the power of reason to give us much more. Mitigated scepticism is thus closer to the attitude fostered by ancient sceptics from Pyrrho through to Sextus Empiricus. Although the phrase ‘Cartesian scepticism’ is sometimes used, Descartes himself was not a sceptic, but in the method of doubt uses a sceptical scenario in order to begin the process of finding a secure mark of knowledge. Descartes himself trusts a category of ‘clear and distinct’ ideas, not far removed from the phantasia kataleptikē of the Stoics.
Scepticism should not be confused with relativism, which is a doctrine about the nature of truth, and may be motivated by trying to avoid scepticism. Nor is it identical with eliminativism, which counsels abandoning an area of thought altogether, not because we cannot know the truth, but because there are no truths capable of being framed in the terms we use.
Columbia Encyclopedia:
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scepticism
skepticism (skĕp'tĭsĭzəm) [Gr.,=to reflect], philosophic position holding that the possibility of knowledge is limited either because of the limitations of the mind or because of the inaccessibility of its object. It is more loosely used to denote any questioning attitude. Extreme skepticism holds that no knowledge is possible, but this is logically untenable since the statement contradicts itself. The first important skeptical view was held by Democritus, who saw sense perception as no certain guide to objective reality. The Sophists were the earliest group of skeptics. Protagoras taught the relativity of knowledge, and Gorgias held that either nothing could be known, or if anything were known, it could not be communicated. Pyrrho, regarded as the father of skepticism, later held a similarly extreme position, seeing reality as inaccessible. Arcesilaus taught that certitude is impossible and only probable knowledge is attainable. In the Renaissance, skepticism is seen in the writings of Michel de Montaigne, Pierre Charron, and Blaise Pascal. For René Descartes skepticism was a methodology that allowed him to arrive at certain incontrovertible truths. At the end of the 17th cent., Pierre Bayle skeptically challenged philosophical and theological theories. David Hume, a leading modern skeptic, challenged established assumptions about the self, substance, and causality. The skeptical aspect of Immanuel Kant's philosophy is exemplified by his agnosticism; his antinomies of reason demonstrate that certain problems are insoluble by reason. To some degree skepticism manifests itself in the scientific method, which demands that all things assumed as facts be questioned. But the positivism of many scientists, whether latent or open, is incompatible with skepticism, for it accepts without question the assumption that material effect is impossible without material cause.
Bibliography
See R. H. Popkin, The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (rev. ed. 1968); C. L. Stough, Greek Skepticism (1969); M. Burnyeat, ed., The Skeptical Tradition (1983); B. Stroud, The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism (1984).
Quotes About:
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Skepticism
Quotes:
"If only God would give me some clear sign! Like making a large deposit in my name at a Swiss bank."
- Woody Allen
"A skeptic is a person who, when he sees the handwriting on the wall, claims it is a forgery."
- Morris Bender
"If I am fool, it is, at least, a doubting one; and I envy no one the certainty of his self-approved wisdom."
- Lord Byron
"There is something pagan in me that I cannot shake off. In short, I deny nothing, but doubt everything."
- Lord Byron
"Skepticism, as I said, is not intellectual only; it is moral also; a chronic atrophy and disease of the whole soul. A man lives by believing something; not by debating and arguing about many things. A sad case for him when all that he can manage to believe is something he can button in his pocket, and with one or the other organ eat and digest! Lower than that he will not get."
- Thomas Carlyle
"Skepticism has never founded empires, established principals, or changed the world's heart. The great doers in history have always been people of faith."
- Edwin Hubbel Chapin
See more famous quotes about Skepticism
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categories related to 'skepticism'
- Schools, Doctrines, and Movements - skepticism: theory that man can never attain certain knowledge and that all knowledge should be questioned
- Disapproval, Disrespect, and Denial - skepticism: attitude of doubt
Wikipedia on Answers.com:
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Skepticism
This article is about the philosophical term. For the metal band, see Skepticism (band).
"Skeptic" and "Skeptics" redirect here. For other uses, see Skeptic (disambiguation).
| Certainty series |
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| Agnosticism Belief Certainty Doubt Determinism Epistemology Estimation Fallibilism Fatalism Justification Nihilism Probability Skepticism Solipsism Truth Uncertainty |
Skepticism or scepticism (see spelling differences) has many definitions, but generally refers to any questioning attitude towards knowledge, facts, or opinions/beliefs stated as facts,[1] or doubt regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere.[2] The word may characterize a position on a single matter, as in the case of religious skepticism, which is "doubt concerning basic religious principles (such as immortality, providence, and revelation)",[3] but philosophical skepticism is an overall approach that requires all information to be well supported by evidence.[4] Skeptics may even doubt the reliability of their own senses.[5] Classical philosophical skepticism derives from the 'Skeptikoi', a school who "asserted nothing".[6] Adherents of Pyrrhonism, for instance, suspend judgment in investigations.[7]
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Contents
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Definition
In ordinary usage, skepticism (US) or scepticism (UK) (Greek: 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to think, to look about, to consider; see also spelling differences) refers to:
- (a) an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object;
- (b) the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain; or
- (c) the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster).
In philosophy, scepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about:
- (a) an inquiry,
- (b) a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing,
- (c) the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
- (d) the limitations of knowledge,
- (e) a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment.
Scientific skepticism
Main article: Scientific skepticism
A scientific (or empirical) skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some form of the scientific method.[8] As a result, a number of claims are considered "pseudoscience" if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to things outside perceivable observation and thus outside the realm of systematic, empirical falsifiability/testability.
Religious skepticism
Main article: Religious skepticism
Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting given religious beliefs or claims. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to Socrates, who doubted many religious claims of the time. Modern religious skepticism typically places more emphasis on scientific and historical methods or evidence, with Michael Shermer writing that it is a process for discovering the truth rather than blanket non-acceptance. For this reason, a religious skeptic may not believe that Jesus existed, or if he did, that he was not the messiah and did not perform miracles. Religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism, though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict in some stated belief.
Philosophical skepticism
Main article: Philosophical skepticism
In philosophical skepticism, pyrrhonism is a position that refrains from making truth claims. A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical skepticism, such as academic skepticism, an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible. Empiricism is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical skepticism and nomothetic science; philosophical skepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism."
Philosophical skepticism originated in ancient Greek philosophy.[9] The Greek Sophists of the 5th century BC were for the most part skeptics. Pyrrhonism was a school of skepticism founded by Aenesidemus in the first century BC and recorded by Sextus Empiricus in the late 2nd century or early 3rd century AD. One of its first proponents was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-275 B.C.), who traveled and studied as far as India and propounded the adoption of "practical" skepticism. Subsequently, in the "New Academy" Arcesilaus (c. 315-241 B.C.) and Carneades (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted as uncertain. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of Stoicism, asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of empiricism into the basis for asserting knowledge.
Greek skeptics criticized the Stoics, accusing them of dogmatism. For the skeptics, the logical mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the regress argument, whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity (see the five tropes of Agrippa the Sceptic). In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a circular argument (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics, such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth and could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.
In Islamic philosophy, skepticism was established by Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), known in the West as "Algazel", as part of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Islamic theology, whose method of skepticism shares many similarities with Descartes' method.[10]
René Descartes is credited for developing a global skepticism as a thought experiment in his attempt to find absolute certainty on which to base the foundation of his philosophy. Descartes discussed skeptical arguments from dreaming and radical deception. David Hume has also been described as a global skeptic. However, Descartes was not ostensibly a skeptic and developed his theory of an absolute certainty to disprove other skeptics who argued that there is no certainty.
Pierre Le Morvan (2011) has distinguished between three broad philosophical approaches to skepticism. The first he calls the "Foil Approach." According to the latter, skepticism is treated as a problem to be solved, or challenge to be met, or threat to be parried; skepticism‘s value on this view, insofar as it is deemed to have one, accrues from its role as a foil contrastively illuminating what is required for knowledge and justified belief. The second he calls the "Bypass Approach" according to which skepticism is bypassed as a central concern of epistemology. Le Morvan advocates a third approach—he dubs it the "Health Approach"--that explores when skepticism is healthy and when it is not, or when it is virtuous and when it is vicious.
See also
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- Critical thinking
- Debunker, a person who discredits and exposes claims as being false, exaggerated or pretentious.
- Doubt
- Scientific skepticism
- Denialism
Literary skeptics
- Ambrose Bierce: The Devil's Dictionary
- Ignacy Krasicki: Fables and Parables
- Herman Melville: Moby-Dick, other works
- Montaigne: Essais.
- Bolesław Prus: Pharaoh
- Voltaire: Candide
Organizations
- Australian Skeptics
- Brights movement
- Center for Inquiry
- Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
- New England Skeptical Society
- New Zealand Skeptics
- James Randi Educational Foundation
- Rationalist International
- Skepsis ry (Finnish association of skeptics)
- The Skeptics Society
- IIG
Media
- The Skeptic's Dictionary
- Skeptical Inquirer
- Skeptic (U.S. magazine)
- The Skeptic (UK magazine)
- The Freethinker (journal)
- Snopes.com
- The Straight Dope
- FactCheck
- MythBusters
- Penn & Teller: Bullshit!
- Point of Inquiry
- Skepticality
- Skeptoid
- The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe
Notes
- ^ See R. H. Popkin, The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (rev. ed. 1968); C. L. Stough, Greek Skepticism (1969); M. Burnyeat, ed., The Skeptical Tradition (1983); B. Stroud, The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism (1984). Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com
- ^ "Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." URM.edu
- ^ Merriam–Webster
- ^ "Philosophical skepticism should be distinguished from ordinary skepticism, where doubts are raised against certain beliefs or types of beliefs because the evidence for the particular belief or type of belief is weak or lacking..." Skepdic.com
- ^ "...the two most influential forms of skepticism have, arguably, been the radical epistemological skepticism of the classical Pyrrhonian skeptics and the Cartesian form of radical epistemological skepticism" UTM.edu
- ^ Liddell and Scott
- ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines Of Pyrrhonism, Translated by R. G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 21
- ^ Skeptoid.com: What is skepticism?
- ^ Scepticism – History of Scepticism
- ^ Najm, Sami M. (July–October 1966), "The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali", Philosophy East and West (Philosophy East and West, Vol. 16, No. 3/4) 16 (3–4): 133–141, doi:10.2307/1397536, JSTOR 1397536
Sources
- A Greek-English Lexicon, Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones, with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, 1940. Online, perseus.tufts.edu.
- Richard Hönigswald, Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft, 1914, new edition (ed. and introduction by Christian Benne and Thomas Schirren), Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 2008, ISBN 978767530560
- Keeton, Morris T., "skepticism", pp. 277–278 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
- Le Morvan, P., "Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom," Logos & Episteme II, 1 (2011): 87-102. <http://logos-and-episteme.proiectsbc.ro/sites/default/files/HEALTHY%20SKEPTICISM%20AND%20PRACTICAL%20WISDOM.pdf>
- Runes, D.D. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
- Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
- Butchvarov, Panayot, Skepticism About the External World (Oxford University Press, 1998).
- Daniels, M.D., D.; Price, PhD, V. (2000), The Essential Enneagram, New York: HarperCollins
Further reading
- Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, R.G. Bury (trans.), Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1990.
- Richard Wilson, Don't Get Fooled Again - The skeptic's guide to life, Icon Books, London, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84831-014-8
External links
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Look up skepticism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Skepticism |
- Skeptical Inquiry at the Open Directory Project
- "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong", NewScientist, 30 August 2005
- "In the Name of Skepticism: Martin Gardner's Misrepresentations of General Semantics", by Bruce I. Kodish, appeared in General Semantics Bulletin, Number 71, 2004.
- Classical Skepticism by Peter Suber
- "Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century" – Skeptical Inquirer magazine
- "CSICOP and the Skeptics" – critical essay by paranormal believer George P. Hansen
- "Nonsense (And Why It's So Popular)" – course syllabus from The College of Wooster.
"Scepticism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. – A Christian (Catholic) account of scepticism
This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
Translations:
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Scepticism
Dansk (Danish)
n. - skepsis, skepticisme
Nederlands (Dutch)
scepsis, twijfel
Français (French)
n. - scepticisme
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - σκεπτικισμός, δυσπιστία, επιφύλαξη
Italiano (Italian)
scetticismo
Português (Portuguese)
n. - cepticismo (m)
Español (Spanish)
n. - escepticismo
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - skepticism, skepsis, tvivel, klentrogenhet
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
怀疑论, 怀疑主义
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 懷疑論, 懷疑主義
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 懐疑論者, 懐疑学派の
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) ألشكوكيه
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