Slovak language

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Slovak
slovenčina, slovenský jazyk
Spoken in	Slovakia and as a minority language also in the United States, Canada, Czech Republic, Serbia, Hungary etc.
Region	Central Europe
Total speakers	over 7 million
Ranking	104
Language family	Indo-European Slavic West Slavic Czech-Slovak Slovak
Official status
Official language in	European Union  Slovakia Vojvodina (Serbia)
Regulated by	Slovak Academy of Sciences (The Ľudovít Štúr Linguistic Institute)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	sk
ISO 639-2	slo (B)	slk (T)
ISO 639-3	slk
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

The Slovak language ( slovenský jazyk (help·info), slovenčina , not to be confused with slovenščina), or Slovenian, is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Slavic languages (together with Czech, Polish, Silesian, Kashubian, and Sorbian).

The Czech and Slovak languages are mutually intelligible which means that even after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia Czech may be used in all official proceedings and documents in Slovakia (Minority Language Act 184/1999 Zb.), and vice versa (Administration Procedure Act 500/2004 Sb.).

Slovak is spoken in Slovakia (by 5 million people), the United States (500,000), the Czech Republic (320,000), northern Serbia (60,000), Ireland (30,000), Romania (22,000), Hungary (20,000), Poland (20,000), Canada (20,000), Croatia (5,000), Australia, Austria, Ukraine, and Bulgaria.

Contents 1 Alphabet 2 Orthography 2.1 Official transcriptions 3 Syntax 4 Morphology 4.1 Articles 4.2 Nouns 4.3 Adjectives 4.4 Pronouns 4.5 Numerals 4.6 Verbs 4.7 Adverbs 4.8 Prepositions 5 History 6 Relationships to other languages 7 Dialects 8 References 9 External links

Alphabet

Slovak uses a modification of the Latin alphabet. The modifications include the four diacriticals (ˇ, ´, ¨, ^; see Pronunciation) placed above certain letters.

Orthography

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phonemic principle, "Write as you hear". The secondary principle is the morphological principle: forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently. An example of this principle is the assimilation rule (see below). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are pronounced the same way. Finally there is the rarely applied grammatical principle, under which, for example, there is a difference in writing (but not in the pronunciation) between the basic singular and plural form of masculine adjectives, for example pekný (nice – sg.) vs pekní (nice – pl.), both pronounced [pekniː].

Most foreign words receive Slovak spelling immediately or after some time. For example, "weekend" is spelled víkend, "software" - softvér, "gay" - gej (both not exclusively), and "quality" is spelled kvalita (possibly from Italian qualità). Personal and geographical names from other languages using Latin alphabets keep their original spelling, unless there is a fully Slovak form for the name (for example Londýn for "London").

Slovak orthography has changed many times. One of the most important changes was after World War II when s began to be written as z where pronounced [z] in prefixes, for example smluva into zmluva, sväz into zväz. (That is, the phonemic principle has been given priority over the etymological principle in this case.)

The Slovak alphabet (minus the vowel diacritics) is often used to transcribe Ukrainian or Russian into the Latin alphabet.^{[citation needed]}

The Slovak language has distinctive palatalization. Among the Slavic languages that do not use the Latin alphabet, Slovak is the closest to Rusyn and then to Ukrainian and Russian. Many Slovak words are familiar to Ruthenian speakers and to a much lesser extent, Ukrainian speakers.

English word	Slovak	Ruthenian	Ukrainian	Czech	Polish
to buy	kupovať	kupovaty	kupuvaty	kupovat	kupować
Welcome!	Vitajte!	Vitajte!	Vitaju!	Vítejte	Witajcie
morning	ráno	rano	rano(k)	ráno	rano / ranek
Thank you	Ďakujem	Ďakuju	Ďakuju	Děkuji	Dziękuję
How are you doing?	Ako sa máš?	Jak s'a maješ / maš?	Jak spravy? Jak s'a maješ?	Jak se máš?	Jak się masz?

Note: Jak s'a maješ? in Ukraine is considered to be a Polonized version of greeting. In proper Ukrainian gramar it would be something as Jak maješ-s'a?

The accent (stress) in the standard language is always placed on the first syllable of a word (or on the preceding preposition, see below). This is not the case in certain dialects. The eastern dialects, for example, have penultimate stress, which at times makes them difficult for speakers of Standard Slovak to understand. Some of the north-central dialects have a weak stress on the first syllable, which becomes stronger and "moves" to the penultimate in certain cases. Monosyllabic conjunctions, monosyllabic short personal pronouns and auxiliary verb forms of the verb byť (to be) are, as a rule, not stressed.

Prepositions form a single prosodic unit with the following word, unless the word is long (four syllables or more) or the preposition stands at the beginning of a sentence.

The acute mark (in Slovak "dĺžeň", "prolongation mark") indicates a long vowel, for example í = approximately /i:/. This mark may appear on any vowel except "ä" (wide "e", široké "e" in Slovak). It may also appear above the consonants "l" and "r" (which, in such cases, are considered vowels).

The circumflex ("vokáň") exists only above the letter "o." It turns the o into a diphthong (see below).

The umlaut ("prehláska", "dve bodky" = two dots) is only used above the letter "a." It indicates a raised vowel, almost an "e".

The caron (in Slovak "mäkčeň", "palatalization mark" or "softener") indicates either palatalization or a change of alveolar fricatives into post-alveolar, in informal Slovak linguistics often called just "palatalization". Eight consonants can bear a caron. Not all "normal" consonants have a "caroned" counterpart:

• In printed texts, the caron is printed in two forms: (1) č, dž, š, ž, ň and (2) ľ, ď, ť (looking more like an apostrophe), but this is just a convention. In handwritten texts, it always appears in the first form.
• Phonetically, there are two forms of "palatalization": ľ, ň, ď, ť are palatalized consonants, while č, dž, š, ž are postalveolar affricates and fricatives.
• To accelerate writing, a rule has been introduced that the frequent character combinations ňe, ďe, ťe, ľe, ňi, ďi, ťi, ľi, ňí, ďí, ťí, ľí are simply written ne, de, te, le, ni, di, ti, li, ní, dí, tí, lí (that is without the caron). These combinations are usually pronounced as if there were a caron above the consonant. There are exceptions:

1. foreign words (for example telefón is pronounced with a hard t and a hard l)
2. the following words: ten (that), jeden (one), vtedy (then), teraz (now)
3. nominative masculine plural endings of pronouns and adjectives do not "soften" preceding n, d, t, l (for example tí odvážni mladí muži /tiː odvaːʒniː mladiː muʒi/, the/those brave young men)
4. short e in adjectival endings, which is derived from long é shortened by the "rhythmical rule" (see below), does not "soften" preceding n, d, t, l (for example krásne stromy /kraːsnɛ.../, beautiful trees, c.f. zelené stromy /zɛlʲɛnɛː.../, green trees)

• ľ is current pronounced by many speakers, particularly from western Slovakia, as a non-palatalized l, esp. in li and le where the caron is not written. The palatalized pronunciation of li and le as palatalized has become a middle and eastern dialect feature, or as a sign of hypercorrectness.

In addition, the following rules hold:

1. When a voiced consonant having a voiceless correspondent (that is b, d, ď, dz, dž, g, h, z, ž) stands at the end of the word before a pause, it is pronounced as a voiceless consonant (that is p, t, ť, c, č, k, ch, s, š, respectively), for example pohyb is pronounced /pohip/, prípad is pronounced /priːpat/
2. When "v" stands at the end of the syllable, it is pronounced as non-syllabic u (bilabial approximant /u̯/), with the exception of the position before "n" or "ň", for example, kov /kou̯/ (metal), kravský /krau̯skiː/ (cow - adjective), but povstať /pofstatʲ/ (uprise) because the v is not at the end of the syllable (po-vstať), hlavný /hlavniː/ because "v" stands before "n" here
3. The assimilation rule: Consonant clusters containing both voiced and voiceless elements are entirely voiced if the last consonant is a voiced one, or voiceless if the last consonant is voiceless. For example, otázka is pronounced /otaːska/, vzchopiť sa is pronounced /fsxopitsːa/. This rule applies also over the word boundary, for example prísť domov /priːzdʲ domou̯/ (to come home), viac jahôd /vi̯adzjahu̯ot/ (more strawberries). The voiced counterpart of "ch" /x/ is /ɣ/.
4. The rhythmical rule: A long syllable (that is, a syllable containing á, é, í, ý, ó, ú, ŕ, ĺ, ia, ie, iu, ô) cannot be followed by another long syllable in the same word. This rule has morphonemic implications: for example žen-ám but tráv-am) and conjugation (for example nos-ím but súd-im). There are several exceptions to this rule. It is typical of the literary Slovak language, and does not appear in Czech, or in some Slovak dialects.

Official transcriptions

Slovak linguists do not usually use IPA for phonetic transcription of their own language or others, but have their own system based on the Slovak alphabet. Many English language textbooks make use of this alternative system of 'phonetic' transcription, a factor which probably contributes to some Slovaks developing a particular ('incorrect') pronunciation of certain English phonemes. In the following table, pronunciation of each grapheme is given in this system as well as in the IPA.

grapheme	IPA	transcr.
a	a	a
á	aː	á
ä	æ, ɛ	ä, e
b	b	b
c	t͡s	c
č	t͡ʃ	č
d	d	d
ď	ɟ, dʲ	ď
dz	d͡z	ʒ
dž	d͡ʒ	ǯ
e	e	e
é	eː	é
f	f	f
g	ɡ	g
h	ɦ	h
ch	x	x
i	ɪ	i
í	iː	í
j	j	j
k	k	k
l	l, l̩	l
ĺ	l̩ː	ĺ̥
ľ	ʎ, lʲ	ľ
m	m	m
n	n	n
ň	ɲ, nʲ	ň
o	ɔ	o
ó	ɔː	ó
ô	u̯o	ŭo
p	p	p
q	kv	kv
r	r, r̩	r
ŕ	r̩ː	ŕ̥
s	s	s
š	ʃ	š
t	t	t
ť	c, tʲ	ť
u	u	u
ú	uː	ú
v	v	v
w	v	v
x	ks	ks
y	ɪ	i
ý	iː	í
z	z	z
ž	ʒ	ž

Some additional notes (transcriptions in IPA unless otherwise stated):

• Pronunciation of ä as [æ] is already archaic (or dialectical) but still considered correct by some authorities; the other standard pronunciation today is [ɛ].
• r and l can be syllabic /r̩/ and /l̩/ and behave as vowels. When they are used in this manner, they may be written with the acute accent (ŕ and ĺ). e.g., vlk (wolf), prst (finger), štvrť (quarter), krk (neck), bisyllabic vĺča—vĺ-ča (wolfling), vŕba—vŕ-ba (willow-tree), etc.
• ch, normally the unvoiced [x], has a voiced allophone resulting from assimilation [ɣ].
• The graphic group -ou (at the end of words) is pronounced [ɔu̯] but is not considered a separate diphthong. Its phonemic interpretation is /ov/.
• ia, ie, iu form diphthongs /i̯a/ /i̯e/ /i̯u/ in native Slovak words, but two monophtongs in foreign and loan words.
• m has the allophone [ɱ] in front of the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/.
• n in front of (post)alveolar fricatives has an allophone written as /n̶/ in Slovak phonemic transcription.
• n can be [ŋ] in front of the velar plosives /k/ and /g/.
• f can be voiced [f̬] as a result of phonetic assimilation.

Syntax

The main features of Slovak syntax are:

• The verb (predicate) agrees in person and number with its subject, for example:

Speváčka spieva. (The+female+singer is+singing.)

(Speváčk-a spieva-0, where -0 is a third person singular ending)

Speváčky spievajú. (The+female+singers are+singing.)

(Speváčk-y spieva-j-ú; -ú is a third person plural ending, and /j/ is a hiatus sound)

My speváčky spievame. (We the+female+singers are+singing.)

(My speváčk-y spieva-me, where -me is the first person plural ending)

and so forth.

• Adjectives, pronouns and numerals agree in person, gender and case with the noun to which it refers(see Slovak declension).

• Adjectives precedes their noun. Botanic or zoological terms are exceptions (for example, mačka divá, literally "cat wild", Felis silvestris), as is the naming of Holy Spirit (Duch Svätý) in majority of churches.

Word order in Slovak is relatively free, since strong inflection enables the identification of thematic role (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of its placement. This relatively free word order allows the use of word order in information structure.

Examples:

Ten veľký muž tam dnes otvára obchod. = That big man opens a store there today. (ten = that; veľký = big; muž = man; tam = there; dnes = today; otvára = opens; obchod = store)

Ten veľký muž dnes otvára obchod tam. = That big man is today opening a store there.

Dnes tam otvára obchod ten veľký muž. = Today over there a store is being opened by that big man.

Obchod tam dnes otvára ten veľký muž. = The store over there is today being opened by that big man.

The unmarked order is Subject-Verb-Object. Word order is not completely free. In the above example, the following combinations are not possible:

Ten otvára veľký muž tam dnes obchod.

Obchod muž tam ten veľký dnes otvára. ...

The following are unlikely:

Otvára ten veľký muž tam dnes obchod? = Is that big man opening the store there?

Obchod ten veľký muž dnes tam otvára.

Morphology

Articles

There are no articles in the Slovak language. The demonstrative pronoun ten (fem: tá, neuter: to) may be used in front of the noun in situations where definiteness must be indicated.

Nouns

See: Slovak declension

Adjectives

See: Slovak declension

Pronouns

See: Slovak declension

Numerals

There are unique forms for 0-10. 11-19 are formed by the numeral plus "násť." Compound numerals (21, 1054) are combinations of these words formed in the same order as their mathematical symbol is written (for example 21 = dvadsaťjeden, literally "twenty one")).

The numerals are: (1) jeden (jedno (neuter), jedna (feminine)), (2) dva (dve (neuter, feminine)), (3) tri, (4) štyri, (5) päť, (6) šesť, (7) sedem, (8) osem, (9) deväť, (10) desať, (11) jedenásť, (12) dvanásť, (13) trinásť, (14) štrnásť, (15) pätnásť, (16) šestnásť, (17) sedemnásť, (18) osemnásť, (19) devätnásť, (20) dvadsať, (21) dvadsaťjeden,... (30) tridsať, (31) tridsaťjeden,... (40) štyridsať,... (50) päťdesiat,... (60) šesťdesiat,... (70) sedemdesiat,... (80) osemdesiat,... (90) deväťdesiat,... (100) sto, (101) stojeden,... (200) dvesto,... (300) tristo,... (900)deväťsto,... (1,000) tisíc,... (1,100) tisícsto,... (2,000) dvetisíc,... (100,000) stotisíc,... (200,000) dvestotisíc,... (1,000,000) milión,... (1,000,000,000) miliarda,...

See also: Slovak declension

Verbs

• Verbs have three major conjugations. Three persons and two numbers (singular and plural) are distinguished. There are several conjugation paradigms.
• á-Type Verbs

volať, to call	Singular	Plural	Past Participle (masculine - feminine)
1st Person	volám	voláme	volal - volala
2nd Person	voláš	voláte
3rd Person	volá	volajú

• á-Type Verbs - rhythmic law

bývať, to live	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	bývam	bývame	býval - bývala
2nd Person	bývaš	bývate
3rd Person	býva	bývajú

• á-Type Verbs - soft stem

vracať, to return	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	vraciam	vraciame	vracal - vracala
2nd Person	vraciaš	vraciate
3rd Person	vracia	vracajú

• í-Type Verbs

robiť, to do, work	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	robím	robíme	robil - robila
2nd Person	robíš	robíte
3rd Person	robí	robia

• í-Type Verbs - rhythmic law

vrátiť, to return	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	vrátim	vrátime	vrátil - vrátila
2nd Person	vrátiš	vrátite
3rd Person	vráti	vrátia

• ie-Type Verbs

vidieť, to see	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	vidím	vidíme	videl - videla
2nd Person	vidíš	vidíte
3rd Person	vidí	vidia

• e-Type Verbs -ovať

kupovať, to buy	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	kupujem	kupujeme	kupoval - kupovala
2nd Person	kupuješ	kupujete
3rd Person	kupuje	kupujú

• e-Type Verbs - (typically -Cnuť)

zabudnúť, to forget	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	zabudnem	zabudneme	zabudol - zabudla
2nd Person	zabudneš	zabudnete
3rd Person	zabudne	zabudnú

• ie-Type Verbs - (typically -Vnuť)

minúť, to spend, miss	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	miniem	minieme	minul - minula
2nd Person	minieš	miniete
3rd Person	minie	minú

• ie-Type Verbs - -cť, -sť, -zť

niesť, to carry	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	nesiem	nesieme	niesol - niesla
2nd Person	nesieš	nesiete
3rd Person	nesie	nesú

• ie-Type Verbs - -nieť

stučnieť, to carry (be fat)	Singular	Plural	Past Participle
1st Person	stučniem	stučnieme	stučnel - stučnela
2nd Person	stučnieš	stučniete
3rd Person	stučnie	stučnejú

• Irregular Verbs

	byť, to be	jesť, to eat	vedieť, to know
1st Sg	som	jem	viem
2nd Sg	si	ješ	vieš
3rd Sg	je	je	vie
1st Pl	sme	jeme	vieme
2nd Pl	ste	jete	viete
3rd Pl	sú	jedia	vedia
Past Participle	bol	jedol	vedel

• Subject personal pronouns are omitted unless they are emphatic.

• Non-continuous time is indicated with a perfective verb and the continuous version with an imperfective verb which is formed on the perfective stem. These are considered separate lexemes. Example: :to hide = skryť, to be hiding = skrývať

• Historically, there were two past tenses. Both are formed analytically. One of these is not used in the modern language, being considered dated and/or grammatically incorrect. Examples for two related verbs:

skryť (to hide) : skryl som (I hid / I have hidden); bol som skryl (I had hidden)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrýval som (I was hiding); bol som skrýval (I had been hiding)

• There is one future tense. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically, for perfective verbs it is identical with the present tense. Examples:

skryť (to hide) : skryjem (I will hide / I will have hidden)

skrývať (to be hiding) : budem skrývať (I will be hiding)

• There are two conditional forms. Both are formed analytically from the past tense:

skryť (to hide) : skryl by som (I would hide), bol by som skryl (I would have hidden)

skrývať (to be hiding) : skrýval by som (I would be hiding), bol by som skrýval (I would have been hiding)

• The passive voice is formed either as in English (to be + past participle) or as in Romance languages (using the reflexive pronoun 'sa'):

skryť (to hide): je skrytý (he is hidden); sa skryje (he is hidden)

skrývať (to be hiding): je skrývaný (he is being hidden); sa skrýva (he is being hidden)

• The active present participle (=which is ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úci/ -iaci / - aci

skryť (to hide) : skryjúci (which is hiding)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúci (which is being hiding)

• The gerund (=by/when ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úc / -uc / –iac/-ac

skryť (to hide): skryjúc (by/when hiding)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúc (by/when being hiding)

• The active past participle (= which was ...ing) was formerly formed using the suffix –vší, but is no longer used.

• The passive participle (= ...ed (adj.)) is formed using the suffixes -ný / -tý / -ený:

skryť (to hide): skrytý (hid)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývaný (being hidden)

• The 'verbal noun' (= the ...ing) is formed using the suffix –ie:

skryť (to hide): skrytie (the hiding)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývanie (the continuous hiding)

Adverbs

Adverbs are formed by replacing the adjectival ending with the ending –o or –e/-y. Sometimes both –o and -e are possible. Examples:

vysoký (high) – vysoko (highly)

pekný (nice) – pekne (nicely)

priateľský (friendly) – priateľsky (in a friendly manner)

rýchly (fast) – rýchlo / rýchle (quickly)

The comparative/superlative of adverbs is formed by replacing the adjectival ending with a comparative/superlative ending -(ej)ší or –(ej)šie. Examples:

rýchly (fast)– rýchlejší (faster) – najrýchlejší (fastest):rýchlo (quickly) – rýchlejšie (more quickly) – najrýchlejšie (most quickly)

Prepositions

Each preposition is associated with one or more grammatical cases. The noun governed by a preposition must appear in the case required by the preposition in the given context. Example:

from friends = od priateľov

Priateľov is the genitive case of priatelia. It must appear in this case because the preposition od (=from) always calls for its objects to be in the genitive.

throughout the square = po námestí (locative case)

past the square = po námestie (accusative case)

Po has a different meaning depending on the case of its governed noun.

History

Relationships to other languages

The Slovak language is a descendant of Proto-Slavic language, itself a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. It is closely related to the other West Slavic languages. In particular, Slovak is very closely related to the Czech language. It also has some striking similarities with other Slavic languages. The Slovak language has been influenced by many languages, including Czech, Polish, and German.

The Slavic language varieties tend to be closely related, and have had a large degree of mutual influence, due to the complicated ethnopolitical history of their historic ranges. This is reflected in the many features Slovak shares with neighboring language varieties. Standard Slovak shares high degrees of mutual intelligibility with many Slavic varieties. Despite this closeness to other Slavic varieties, there is significant variation among Slovak dialects. In particular, eastern varieties differ significantly from the standard language, which is based on central and western varieties.

Most dialects of Czech and Slovak are mutually intelligible; the two are sometimes considered to be poles of a dialect continuum (see Differences between Slovak and Czech languages). The two varieties have a long history of interaction and mutual influence well before the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918. The written form is very close to the Czech one, but there are phonetic and vocabulary differences. Literary Slovak shares significant orthographic features with Czech, as well technical and professional terminology dating from the Czechoslovakian period.

Eastern Slovak dialects are less intelligible with Czech; they differ structurally from Czech and from other Slovak dialects, and contact between speakers of Czech and speakers of eastern dialects is limited. However, Eastern Slovak dialects have some intelligibility with Rusyn, but both lack technical terminology and upper register expressions. Polish and Sorbian also differ from Czech and Slovak in upper registers, but non-technical and lower register speech is readily intelligible. There is also some mutual intelligibility with spoken Polish, however Polish orthography is very different; Rusyn orthography is even further, as it, like Ukrainian, uses the Cyrillic alphabet.

In addition to vocabulary common to the Slavic languages of the region, significant non-Slavic elements have been incorporated into the Slovak lexicon. Slovak went through long periods of close contact with both Hungarian and German. Both languages have left their mark on Slovak vocabulary. Serbian loanwords in Slovak include: "paprika," Slovak paprika, Hungarian paprika;^[1]. Hungarian loanwords include: "whip," Slovak korbáč, Hungarian korbács; and "dragon", Slovak šarkan, Hungarian sárkány.^[2] German loanwords include "coins," Slovak mince, German münzen; "to wish", Slovak vinšovať, German wünschen; and "color," Slovak farba, German Farbe.^[3]

Dialects

There are many varieties of Slovak. These may be divided in four basic groups:

• Eastern Slovak dialects (in Spiš, Šariš, Zemplín and Abov)
• Central Slovak dialects (in Liptov, Orava, Turiec, Tekov, Hont, Novohrad, Gemer and the historic Zvolen county)
• Western Slovak dialects (in remaining Slovakia: Kysuce, Trenčín, Trnava, Nitra, Záhorie)
• Lowland (dolnozemské) Slovak dialects (outside Slovakia in the Pannonian Plain in Serbian Vojvodina, and in southeastern Hungary, western Romania, and the Croatian part of Syrmia)

The fourth group of dialects is often not considered a separate group, but a subgroup of Central and Western Slovak dialects (see e.g. Štolc, 1968), but it is currently undergoing changes due to contact with surrounding languages (Serbian, Romanian and Hungarian) and long-time geographical separation from Slovakia (see the studies in Zborník Spolku vojvodinských slovakistov, e.g. Dudok, 1993).

For an external map of the three groups in Slovakia see here.

The dialect groups differ mostly in phonology, vocabulary and inflection. Syntactic differences are minor. Central Slovak forms the basis of the present-day standard language. Not all dialects are fully mutually intelligible. It may be difficult for an inhabitant of the Slovak capital Bratislava (in western Slovakia) to understand a dialect from eastern Slovakia.

The dialects are fragmented geographically, separated by numerous mountain ranges. The first three groups already existed in the 10th century. All of them are spoken by the Slovaks outside Slovakia (USA, Canada, Croatian Slavonia, Bulgaria and elsewhere) and Central and Western dialects form the basis of the Lowland dialects (see above).

The western dialects contain features common with the Moravian dialects in the Czech Republic, the southern central dialects contain a few features common with South Slavic languages, and the eastern dialects a few features common with Polish and the East Slavonic languages (cf. Štolc, 1994). Lowland dialects share some words and areal features with the languages surrounding them (Serbian, Hungarian and Romanian).

References

• Dudok, D. (1993) Vznik a charakter slovenských nárečí v juhoslovanskej Vojvodine [The emergence and character of the Slovak dialects in Yugoslav Vojvodina]. Zborník spolku vojvodinských slovakistov 15. Nový Sad: Spolok vojvodinských slovakistov, pp. 19–29.

• Musilová, K. and Sokolová, M. (2004) Funkčnost česko-slovenských kontaktových jevů v současnosti [The functionality of Czech-Slovak contact phenomena in the present-time]. In Fiala, J. and Machala, L. (eds.) Studia Moravica I (AUPO, Facultas Philosophica Moravica 1). Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, pp. 133–146.

• Nábělková, M. (2003) Súčasné kontexty slovensko-českej a česko-slovenskej medzijazykovosti [Contemporary contexts of the Slovak-Czech and Czech-Slovak interlinguality]. In Pospíšil, I. – Zelenka, M. (eds.) Česko-slovenské vztahy v slovanských a středoevropských souvislostech (meziliterárnost a areál). Brno: ÚS FF MU, pp. 89–122.

• Nábělková, M. (2006) V čom bližšie, v čom ďalej... Spisovná slovenčina vo vzťahu k spisovnej češtine a k obecnej češtine [In what closer, in what further... Standard Slovak in relation to Standard Czech and Common Czech]. In Gladkova, H. and Cvrček, V. (eds.) Sociální aspekty spisovných jazyků slovanských. Praha: Euroslavica, pp. 93–106.

• Nábělková, M. (2007) Closely related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, "Czechoslovak". International Journal of the Sociology of Language 183, pp. 53–73.

• Sloboda, M. (2004) Slovensko-česká (semi)komunikace a vzájemná (ne)srozumitelnost [Slovak-Czech (semi)communication and the mutual (un)intelligibility]. Čeština doma a ve světě XII, No. 3–4, pp. 208–220.

• Sokolová, M. (1995) České kontaktové javy v slovenčine [Czech contact phenomena in Slovak]. In Ondrejovič, S. and Šimková, M. (eds.) Sociolingvistické aspekty výskumu súčasnej slovenčiny (Sociolinguistica Slovaca 1). Bratislava: Veda, pp. 188–206.

• Štolc, Jozef (1968) Reč Slovákov v Juhoslávii I.: Zvuková a gramatická stavba [The speech of the Slovaks in Yugoslavia: phonological and grammatical structure]. Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied.

• Štolc, Jozef (1994) Slovenská dialektológia [Slovak dialectology]. Ed. I. Ripka. Bratislava: Veda.

External links

• Slovak language at Ethnologue
• The Dictionary of the Slovak language (1960s; the biggest Slovak monolingual dictionary; Slovak Academy of Sciences) + Short Slovak Language Dictionary (monolingual; last edition; Slovak Academy of Sciences)
• Slovak National Corpus (Slovak Academy of Sciences)
• SLEX - Online version of Short Slovak Language Dictionary
• Slovak Alphabet and Pronunciation
• Few basic tips on speaking Slovak
• Slovak thematic vocabulary lexicon
• Map of Slovak Dialects
• A short English-Czech/Slovak-Japanese phraselist(Renewal) incl. sound file
• Slovak language learning material

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