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snow

 
Dictionary: snow   (snō) pronunciation
 
snow

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n.
  1. Frozen precipitation in the form of white or translucent hexagonal ice crystals that fall in soft, white flakes.
  2. A falling of snow; a snowstorm.
  3. Something resembling snow, as:
    1. The white specks on a television screen resulting from weak reception.
    2. Slang. Cocaine.
    3. Slang. Heroin.

v., snowed, snow·ing, snows.

v.intr.

To fall as or in snow.

v.tr.
  1. To cover, shut off, or close off with snow: We were snowed in.
  2. Slang. To overwhelm with insincere talk, especially with flattery.
phrasal verb:

snow under

  1. To overwhelm: I was snowed under with work.
  2. To defeat by a very large margin.

[Middle English, from Old English snāw.]


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Frozen precipitation resulting from the growth of ice crystals from water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere.

As ice particles fall out in the atmosphere, they melt to raindrops when the air temperature is a few degrees above 32°F (0°C), or accumulate on the ground at colder temperatures. At temperatures above −40°F (−40°C), individual crystals begin growth on icelike aerosols (often clay particles 0.1 micrometer in diameter), or grow from cloud droplets (10 μm in diameter) frozen by similar particles. At lower temperatures, snow crystals grow on cloud droplets frozen by random molecular motion. At temperatures near 25°F (−4°C), crystals sometimes grow on ice fragments produced during soft hail (graupel) growth. Snow crystals often grow in the supersaturated environment provided by a cloud of supercooled droplets; this is known as the Bergeron-Findeisen process for formation of precipitation. When crystals are present in high concentrations (100 particles per liter) they grow in supersaturations lowered by mutual competition for available vapor.

Ice crystals growing under most atmospheric conditions (air pressure down to 0.2 atm or 20 kilopascals and temperatures 32 to −58°F or 0 to −50°C) have a hexagonal crystal structure, consistent with the arrangement of water molecules in the ice lattice, which leads to striking hexagonal shapes during vapor growth. The crystal habit (ratio of growth along and perpendicular to the hexagonal axis) changes dramatically with temperature. Both field and laboratory studies of crystals grown under known or controlled conditions show that the crystals are platelike above 27°F (−3°C) and between 18 and −13°F (−8 and −25°C), and columnlike between 27 and 18°F (−3 and −8°C) and below −13°F (−25°C).

Individual crystals fall in the atmosphere at velocity up to 0.5 m s−1 (1.6 ft s−1). As crystals grow, they fall at higher velocity, which leads, in combination with the high moisture availability in a supercooled droplet cloud, to sprouting of the corners to form needle or dendrite skeletal crystals.

Under some conditions crystals aggregate to give snowflakes. This happens for the dendritic crystals that grow near 5°F (−15°C), which readily interlock if they collide with each other, and for all crystals near 32°F (0°C). Snowflakes typically contain several hundred individual crystals.

When snow reaches the ground, changes take place in the crystals. At temperatures near 32°F (0°C) the crystals rapidly lose the delicate structure acquired during growth, sharp edges evaporate, and the crystals take on a rounded shape, some 1–2 mm (0.04–0.08 in.) in diameter. These grains sinter together at their contact points to give snow some structural rigidity. The specific gravity varies from ∼0.05 for freshly fallen “powder” snow to ∼0.4 for an old snowpack. See also Crystal growth; Precipitation (meteorology).


 

The flickering snow-like spots on a video screen caused by display electronics that are too slow to respond to changing data.

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Solid form of water that crystallizes in the atmosphere and falls to the Earth, covering about 23% of the Earth's surface either permanently or temporarily. Snowflakes are formed by crystals of ice that generally have a hexagonal pattern. Snow cover has a significant effect on climate and on plant, animal, and human life. By increasing the reflection of solar radiation and interfering with the conduction of heat from the ground, it induces a cold climate. The low heat conduction protects small plants from the effects of the lowest winter temperatures; on the other hand, late disappearance of snow in the spring delays the growth of plants.

For more information on snow, visit Britannica.com.

 
snow, precipitation formed by the sublimation of water vapor into solid crystals at temperatures below freezing. Sublimation resulting in the formation of snow takes place about a dust particle, as in the formation of raindrops. Snowflakes form symmetrical (hexagonal) crystals, sometimes matted together if they descend through air warmer than that of the cloud in which they originated. Apparently, no two snow crystals are alike; they differ from each other in size, lacy structure, and surface markings. Snowfall, reduced to its liquid equivalent, is usually included in statistics on rainfall; the factors determining snowfall are similar to those affecting rainfall. On an average, 10 in. (25 cm) of snow is equivalent to 1 in. (2.5 cm) of rain. In the United States the average snowfall is about 28 in. (71 cm) per winter; the record is 1,140 in. (2,896 cm) at Mt. Baker in Washington state during the snow season of 1998–99. Snow that piles up on slopes may suddenly slide downward in an avalanche. A glacier consists of ice that was formed from compacted snow. Snow serves as an insulating blanket, lessening to some extent the extremes of temperature fluctuation to which the soil is subjected, but it also brings about a rapid cooling of the overlying atmosphere, giving rise to polar air masses. Snow lessens loss of water by dormant plants. The sudden melting of snow is a primary cause of floods. Snow necessitates the building of snowsheds over rail lines and highways in certain mountain localities where a heavy fall is likely to impede travel; the use of snowplows to clear sidewalks, streets, and roads; the use of snow fences to prevent drifting over roads; and the use of skis, snowshoes, toboggans, snowmobiles, and sleds for travel. It is a primary factor in the location of winter sports centers and so has great economic value to certain areas. In some ski resorts machines are used to make artificial snow. As in the case of rainfall, snowfall has been produced artificially by introducing dry-ice pellets into supercooled clouds, that is, clouds containing unfrozen water droplets at temperatures below freezing.


 
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Word Tutor: snow
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pronunciation

IN BRIEF: Soft white crystals of ice that fall from the sky in winter.

pronunciation Courage is not the towering oak that sees storms come and go; it is the fragile blossom that opens in the snow. — Alice Mackenzie Swaim.

 
Dream Symbol: Snow
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Because water is a natural symbol of emotional states, snow may indicate chilled and unexpressed emotions, either in the dreamer or in someone else. Naturally, a snowy landscape might simply be a part of the setting for dreamers living in the Snow Belt.


 
Wikipedia: Snow
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Snowflake captured by a microscope

Snow is a type of precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes that fall from clouds. The process of this precipitation is called snowfall. Since snow is composed of small ice particles, it is a granular material. It has an open and therefore soft structure, unless packed by external pressure. Snowflakes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Types which fall in the form of a ball due to melting and refreezing, rather than a flake, are known as graupel, with sleet and snow grains as examples of graupel. Snowfall amount, and its related liquid equivalent precipitation amount, are determined using a variety of different rain gauges.

Once on the ground, snow can be categorized as powdery when fluffy, granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing, and crud or eventually ice once it packs down into a dense drift after multiple melting and refreezing cycles. When powdering, snow drifts with the wind, sometimes to the depth of several meters. After attaching to hillsides, blown snow can evolve into a snow slab, which is an avalanche hazard on steep slopes. The existence of a snowpack keeps temperatures colder than they would be otherwise, as the whiteness of the snow reflects all sunlight, and the heat it absorbs goes into melting the snow rather than increasing its temperature. The water equivalent of snowfall is measured to monitor how much liquid is available to flood rivers from meltwater which will occur during the upcoming spring. Snow cover can protect crops. If snowfall stays on the ground for a series of years uninterrupted, the snowpack develops into a glacier.

A blizzard and snow storm indicate heavy snowfalls, while flurries are used for the lightest snowfall. Snow can fall as much as one meter at a time during a single storm in flat areas, and meters at a time in rugged topography, such as mountains. Lake-effect snow can lead to more localized high amounts downwind of unfrozen bodies of water. When snow falls in significant quantities, travel by foot and car becomes highly restricted, and mobility is decreased to the use of snowmobiles and skis. However, areas with significant snow each year can store the winter snow within an ice house, which can be used to cool structures during the following summer. When heavy snow occurs early in the fall, significant tree damage occurs to trees still in leaf.

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Contents

Snowflakes

Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus." Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (−31 °F).[1] In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor — what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective,[2] although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei include silver iodide and dry ice, and these form the basis of cloud seeding.[3]

Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment, which is one where air is saturated with respect to ice when the temperature is below the freezing point. The droplet then grows by diffusion of water molecules in the air (vapour) onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected. Because water droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to their sheer abundance, the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometres or millimetres in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the Wegner-Bergeron-Findeison process. The corresponding depletion of water vapour causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground.[4] Guinness World Records list the world’s largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 inches) wide.[5]

The exact details of the sticking mechanism remains controversial. Possibilities include mechanical interlocking, sintering, electrostatic attraction as well as the existence of a "sticky" liquid-like layer on the crystal surface. The individual ice crystals often have hexagonal symmetry. Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection of all spectrum of light by the small ice particles.[6]

Geometry

Example of the diversity of snowflake shapes.

Ice crystals formed in the appropriate conditions are often thin and flat. These planar crystals may be in the shape of simple hexagons, or if the supersaturation is high enough, develop branches and dendritic (fern-like) features and have six approximately identical arms. The sixfold symmetry arises from the hexagonal crystal structure of ordinary ice, the branch formation is produced by unstable growth, with deposition occurring preferentially near the tips of branches.[1]

The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed.[4] Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry — triangular snowflakes.[7] The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing.

Planar crystals (thin and flat) grow in air between 0 °C (32 °F) and −3 °C (27 °F). Between −3 °C (27 °F) and −8 °C (18 °F), the crystals will form needles or hollow columns or prisms (long thin pencil-like shapes). From −8 °C (18 °F) to −22 °C (−8 °F) the shape reverts back to plate-like, often with branched or dendritic features. The maximum difference in vapour pressure between liquid and ice is at about −15 °C (5 °F) where crystals grow most rapidly at the expense of the liquid droplets. At temperatures below −22 °C (−8 °F), the crystal development becomes column-like, although many more complex growth patterns also form such as side-planes, bullet-rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei.[8][9][10] If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime, at around −5 °C (23 °F), and then falls into the warmer plate-like regime, then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column, producing so called "capped columns."[4]

No two snowflakes are alike. It is more likely that two snowflakes could become virtually identical if their environments were similar enough. The American Meteorological Society has reported that matching snow crystals were discovered in Wisconsin in 1988 by Nancy Knight of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.[11] The crystals were not flakes in the usual sense but rather hollow hexagonal prisms.

Types

Hoar frost that grows on the snow surface due to water vapor moving up through the snow on cold, clear nights

Types of snow can be designated by the shape of its flakes, its rate of falling, and by how it collects on the ground. Snowfall's intensity is determined by visibility. When the visibility is over 1 kilometre (0.62 mi), snow is determined to be light. Moderate snow describes snowfall with visibility restrictions between 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi) and 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). Heavy snowfall describes conditions when visibility is restricted below 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi).[12] A blizzard and snowstorm indicate heavy snowfalls, with blizzards defined by having high winds during their heavy snowfall.[13] Snow flurries are used to describe the lightest form of snow showers.[14] Types which fall in the form of a ball due to melting and refreezing cycles, rather than a flake, are known as graupel, with sleet and snow pellets as types of graupel associated with wintry precipitation.[15][16] Once on the ground, snow can be categorized as powdery when fluffy, granular when it begins the cycle of melting and refreezing, and eventually ice once it packs down into a dense drift after multiple melting and refreezing cycles. When powdering, snow drifts with the wind, sometimes to the depth of several meters. After attaching to hillsides, blown snow can evolve into a snow slab, which is an avalanche hazard on steep slopes. A frozen equivalent of dew known as hoar frost forms on a snow pack when winds are light and there is ample low-level moisture over the snow pack.[17]

Density

Approximate ice (and snow) coverage on the northern hemisphere.[18] Yellow lines demarcate limit of permanent permafrost and red line where average temperature even during the coldest month makes snow melt.

Snow remains on the ground until it melts or sublimates. The water equivalent of a given amount of snow is the depth of a layer of water having the same mass and upper area. For example, if the snow covering a given area has a water equivalent of 50 centimetres (20 in), then it will melt into a pool of water 50 centimetres (20 in) deep covering the same area.[19] This is a much more useful measurement to hydrologists than snow depth, as the density of cool freshly fallen snow widely varies. New snow commonly has a density of around 8% of water. This means that 13 inches (330 mm) of snow melts down to 1 inch (25 mm) of water.[20] Cloud temperatures and physical processes in the cloud affect the shape of individual snow crystals. Highly branched or dendritic crystals tend to have more space between the arms of ice that form the snowflake and this snow will therefore have a lower density, often referred to as "dry" snow. Conditions that create columnar or platelike crystals will have much less air space within the crystal and will therefore be denser and feel "wetter".[21]

Once the snow is on the ground, it will settle under its own weight (largely due to differential evaporation) until its density is approximately 30% of water. Increases in density above this initial compression occur primarily by melting and refreezing, caused by temperatures above freezing or by direct solar radiation. In colder climates, snow lies on the ground all winter. By late spring, snow densities typically reach a maximum of 50% of water.[22] Spring snow melt is a major source of water supply to areas in temperate zones near mountains that catch and hold winter snow, especially those with a prolonged dry summer. In such places, water equivalent is of great interest to water managers wishing to predict spring runoff and the water supply of cities downstream. Measurements are made manually at marked locations known as snow courses, and remotely using special scales called snow pillows. When the snow does not all melt in the summer it evolves into firn, where individual granular elements become more spherical in nature,[23] evolving into a glacier as the ice flows downhill.[24]

Measurement

Standard Rain Gauge

The standard way of measuring snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[25] These gages are winterized by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing the snow/freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to their gage so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gage.[26] Once the snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as you approach 300 mm (12 in), one can either bring it inside to melt, or use luke warm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall total once all the ice/snow is melted.[27]

Another type of gage used to measure snowfall is the weighing rain gage.[28] The wedge and tipping bucket gages will have problems with snow measurement. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gage is kept much above freezing. Weighing gages with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. Any of the above rain gages can be made at home, with enough know-how.[29]

Once someone has a device to measure precipitation, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[30][31] If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.[32]

The world record for the highest seasonal total snowfall was measured in the United States at Mount Baker Ski Area, outside of the town Bellingham, Washington during the 1998–1999 season. Mount Baker received 2896 cm (1,140 inches) of snow,[33] thus surpassing the previous record holder, Mount Rainier, Washington, which during the 1971–1972 season received 2850 cm (1,122 in.) of snow.[34]

Energy balance

Traditional Inuit goggles used to combat snow blindness

Since fresh snow reflects 90 percent or more of short-wave radiation, and radiates energy nearly completely further into the infrared spectrum, little energy from the sun is converted into heat from the new snow, and much heat is lost.[35] Snow blindness (also known as ultraviolet keratitis, photokeratitis or niphablepsia) is a painful eye condition, caused by exposure of unprotected eyes to the ultraviolet (UV) rays in bright sunlight reflected from snow or ice.[36] Fresh snow reflects about 80% of UV radiation.[37] This condition is a problem in polar regions and at high altitudes,[38] as with every 1,000 feet (300 m) of elevation (above sea level), the intensity of UV rays increases by four percent.[39] Snow's large reflection of light makes night skies much brighter, since reflected light is directed back up into the sky.[40] However, when there is also cloud cover because snow is falling, light is then reflected back to the ground. This greatly amplifies light emitted from city lights, causing the 'bright night' effect. A similar brightening effect occurs when no snow is falling and there is a full moon and a large amount of snow.[41]

The energy balance of the snowpack itself is dictated by several heat exchange processes. The snowpack absorbs solar shortwave radiation that is partially blocked by cloud cover and reflected by snow surface. A longwave heat exchange takes place between the snowpack and its surrounding environment that includes overlying air mass, tree cover and clouds. Heat exchange takes place by convection between the snowpack and the overlaying air mass is governed by the temperature gradient and wind speed. Moisture exchange between the snowpack and the overlying air mass is accompanied with latent heat transfer that is influenced by vapor pressure gradient and air wind. Rain on snow can add significant amounts of thermal energy to the snowpack. A generally insignificant heat exchange takes place by conduction between the snowpack and the ground. The small temperature change from before to after a snowfall is a result of the heat transfer between the snowpack and the air.[42]

Relation to river flow

First snow of winter, Truckee, California

Many rivers originating in mountainous or high-latitude regions have a significant portion of their flow from snowmelt. This often makes the river's flow highly seasonal resulting in periodic flooding.[43] In contrast, if much of the melt is from glaciated or nearly glaciated areas, the melt continues through the warm season, with peak flows occurring in mid to late summer.[44]

Effects on human society

Cars stuck in the snow

Substantial snowfall can disrupt public infrastructure and services, slowing human activity even in regions that are accustomed to such weather. Air and ground transport may be greatly inhibited or shut down entirely. Populations living in snow-prone areas have developed various ways to travel across the snow, such as skis, snowshoes, and sleds pulled by horses, dogs, or other animals and later, snowmobiles. Basic utilities such as electricity, telephone lines, and gas supply can also fail. In addition, snow can make roads much harder to travel and vehicles attempting to use them can easily become stuck.[45]

The combined effects can lead to a "snow day" on which gatherings such as school, work, or church are officially canceled. In areas that normally have very little or no snow, a snow day may occur when there is only light accumulation or even the threat of snowfall, since those areas are unprepared to handle any amount of snow. In some states, schools are given a yearly quota of snow days (or "calamity days"). Once the quota is exceeded, the snow days must be made up.[46][47][48] In other states, all snow days must be made up.[49] For example, schools may extend the remaining school days later into the afternoon, shorten spring break, or delay the start of summer vacation.

Snow removal is done to make travel easier and safer, and decrease the long term impact of a heavy snowfall. This process is done by both individual households and by governments and institutions and utilizes shovels, snow plows, and the use of salt and other chloride-based chemicals.[50] In areas with abundant snowfall, such as Japan, people harvest snow and store it surrounded by insulation in ice houses. This allowed the ice to be used in summer for refrigeration or medical uses, which is one method of conserving electrical usage.[51]

Agriculture

Snowfall can be beneficial to agriculture by serving as a thermal insulator, conserving the heat of the Earth and protecting crops from subfreezing weather. Some agricultural areas depend on an accumulation of snow during winter that will melt gradually in spring, providing water for crop growth. If it melts into water and refreezes upon sensitive crops, such as oranges, the resulting ice will protect the fruit from exposure to lower temperatures.[52]

Recreation

Building a snowman.

Many winter sports, such as skiing,[53] snowboarding,[54] snowmobiling,[55] and snowshoeing depend upon snow. Where snow is scarce but the temperature is low enough, snow cannons may be used to produce an adequate amount for such sports.[56] Children (also adults and occasionally other species) can play on a sled or ride in a sleigh. Snow can be used to explore unknown or uncharted areas such as dense forest, fields, and marshlands because, barring heavy snowfall or blizzards, a person's footsteps remain a visible lifeline.

One of the recognizable recreational uses of snow is in building snowmen. A snowman is created by making a man shaped figure out of snow - often using a large, shaped snowball for the body and a smaller snowball for the head which is often decorated with simple household items - traditionally including a carrot for a nose, and coal for eyes, nose and mouth; occasionally including old clothes such as a top hat or scarf. Snow can be used to make snow cones, which are usually eaten in the summer months.

Snow can be used to build defensive snow forts for outdoor games such as Capture the flag or for snowball fights. The world's biggest snowcastle, the SnowCastle of Kemi, is built in Kemi, Finland every winter. Since 1928 Michigan Technological University in Houghton, Michigan has held an annual Winter Carnival in mid-February, during which a large Snow Sculpture Contest takes place between various clubs, fraternities, and organizations in the community and the university. Each year there is a central theme, and prizes are awarded based on creativity.[57] Snowball softball tournaments are held in snowy areas, usually using a bright orange softball for visibility, and burlap sacks filled with snow for the bases.

Damage

Damage caused by Lake Storm "Aphid" in October 2006

When heavy, wet snow with a snow-water equivalent (SWE) ratio of between 6:1 and 12:1 and a weight in excess of 9.8 pounds per square foot[58] piles onto trees still in full leaf during the early autumn, significant tree damage occurs on a scale usually associated with hurricanes.[59] An avalanche can occur when excessive snow has accumulated on a mountain and there is a sudden change of temperature, which causes the snow to rush downhill en masse. Preceding an avalanche is a phenomenon known as an avalanche wind caused by the approaching avalanche itself, which adds to its destructive potential.[60] Large amounts of snow which accumulate on top of man-made structures can lead to structural failure.[61]



See also

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References

  1. ^ a b Mason, Basil John. (1971). Physics of Clouds. 
  2. ^ Christner, Brent Q.; Morris, Cindy E.; Foreman, Christine M.; Cai, Rongman; Sands, David C. (2008). "Ubiquity of Biological Ice Nucleators in Snowfall". Science 319 (5867): 1214. doi:10.1126/science.1149757. 
  3. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Cloud seeding". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=cloud+seeding&submit=Search. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  4. ^ a b c Klesius, Michael (2007), "The Mystery of Snowflakes", National Geographic 211 (1): 20, ISSN 0027-9358
  5. ^ Giant Snowflakes as Big as Frisbees? Could Be - Crystalization - Science - New York Times
  6. ^ Jennifer E. Lawson (2001). Hands-on Science : Light, Physical Science (matter) - Chapter 5: The Colors of Light. Portage & Main Press. p. 39. ISBN 9781894110631. http://books.google.com/books?id=4T-aXFsMhAgC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=snow+appears+white+refraction&source=bl&ots=6YNeLW3HzE&sig=jHzA73rPCM1VfhBDPmHzD7-8F-A&hl=en&ei=xuRHSvD4PMGetgev47mMCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  7. ^ Kenneth G. Libbrecht (2006-09-11). "Guide to Snowflakes". California Institute of Technology. http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/class/class.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  8. ^ Bailey, Matthew,; Hallett, John. (2004). "Growth rates and habits of ice crystals between -20 and -70C". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 61: 514. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<0514:GRAHOI>2.0.CO;2. 
  9. ^ Kenneth G. Libbrecht (2006-10-23). "A Snowflake Primer". California Institute of Technology. http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/primer/primer.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  10. ^ Kenneth G. Libbrecht (January-February 2007). "The Formation of Snow Crystals". American Scientist 95 (1): 52-59. 
  11. ^ Randolph E. Schmid (15 June 1988). "Identical snowflakes cause flurry". Associated Press. The Boston Globe. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8066647.html. Retrieved on 27 November 2008. "But there the two crystals were, side by side, on a glass slide exposed in a cloud on a research flight over Wausau, Wis." 
  12. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Snow". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=snow1. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  13. ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (November 1991). "Winter Storms...the Deceptive Killers". United States Department of Commerce. http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/wntrstm.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  14. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Snow flurry". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=snow-flurry1. Retrieved on 2009-06-28. 
  15. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Ice pellets". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=ice-pellets1. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  16. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Snow pellets". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=snow+pellet&submit=Search. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  17. ^ David McClung and Peter Schaerer (2006). The Avalanche Handbook. The Mountaineers Books. pp. 49-51. ISBN 9780898868098. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Bpscs7Gqb8C&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=formation+of+wet+snow&source=bl&ots=vTxfIjdeDc&sig=lDMfR1M1pmD1mCaVQr4VAz7S41E&hl=en&ei=ks1TSvmxCInUMtze-YUP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved on 2009-07-07. 
  18. ^ US Army Corps of Engineers --> The SNOW Interest Group: Snow Impacts on Army/DoD Operations and Snow Research on These Impacts Retrieved on May 24, 2009
  19. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Water Equivalent". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=water+equivalent&submit=Search. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  20. ^ Martin A. Baxter, Charles E. Graves, and James T. Moore (October 2005). "A Climatology of Snow-to-Liquid Ratio for the Contiguous United States". Weather and Forecasting 20 (5): 729-744. http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2FWAF856.1. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  21. ^ David McClung and Peter Schaerer (2006). The Avalanche Handbook. The Mountaineers Books. pp. 69-72. ISBN 9780898868098. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Bpscs7Gqb8C&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=formation+of+wet+snow&source=bl&ots=vTxfIjdeDc&sig=lDMfR1M1pmD1mCaVQr4VAz7S41E&hl=en&ei=ks1TSvmxCInUMtze-YUP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved on 2009-07-07. 
  22. ^ California Data Exchange Center (2007). "Depth and Density". Department of Water Resources California. http://cdec.water.ca.gov/snow/misc/density.html. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  23. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Firn". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=firn1. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  24. ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Glacier". American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=glacier1. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  25. ^ National Weather Service Office, Northern Indiana (2009). 8 Inch Non-Recording Standard Rain Gage. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
  26. ^ Chris Lehmann (2009). 10/00. Central Analytical Laboratory. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
  27. ^ National Weather Service Office Binghamton, New York (2009). Rainguage Information. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
  28. ^ National Weather Service (2009). Glossary: W. Retrieved on 2009-01-01.
  29. ^ Discovery School (2009). Build Your Own Weather Station. Discovery Education. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
  30. ^ Community Collaborative Rain, Hail & Snow Network (2009). Community Collaborative Rain, Hail & Snow Network Main Page. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
  31. ^ Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment Program (2009). GLOBE Home Page. GLOBE. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
  32. ^ National Weather Service (2009). NOAA's National Weather Service Main Page. Retrieved on 2009-01-01.
  33. ^ USA Today (1999-08-03). "NOAA: Mt. Baker snowfall record sticks". http://www.usatoday.com/weather/news/1999/wsnorcrd.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  34. ^ Mount Rainier National Park (2006-04-14). "Frequently Asked Questions". National Park Service. http://web.archive.org/web/20070221204740rn_1/www.nps.gov/archive/mora/interp/faq.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  35. ^ Paul E. Lydolph (1985). The Climate of the Earth. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 104. ISBN 9780865981195. http://books.google.com/books?id=bBjIuXHEgZ4C&pg=PA104&dq=air+temperatures+colder+over+fresh+snow. Retrieved on 2009-07-04. 
  36. ^ "Snow blindness". General Practice Notebook. http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=-268042203. Retrieved on November 19, 2008. 
  37. ^ "The "Burning" Facts of UV Light". SunGlassesUK.com. http://www.sunglassesuk.com/pr1/press_release/the_burning_facts_of_uv_light.asp. Retrieved on 2009-04-16. 
  38. ^ Brozen, MD, Reed; Christian Fromm, MD (February 4, 2008). "Ultraviolet Keratitis". eMedicine. http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic759.htm. Retrieved on November 19, 2008. 
  39. ^ "Sun Safety". University of California, Berkeley. April 2005 (last reviewed). http://www.uhs.berkeley.edu/home/healthtopics/sunsafety.shtml. Retrieved on November 19, 2008. 
  40. ^ Richard C. Shirkey (2008-12-09). "A Model for Nighttime Urban Illumination". Defence Technical Information Center. 7. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA497505&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  41. ^ Shawn Carlson (April 1999). "Detecting "Hot" Clouds". Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=detecting-quothotquot-clo. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  42. ^ Hamed Assaf (2007). "Development of an Energy-budget Snowmelt Updating Model for Incorporating Feedback from Snow Course Survey Measurements". Journal of Engineering, Computing and Architecture 1 (1). ISSN 1934-7197. http://www.scientificjournals.org/journals2007/articles/1118.pdf. 
  43. ^ Howard Perlman (2009-05-13). "The Water Cycle: Snowmelt Runoff". United States Geologic Survey. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclesnowmelt.html. Retrieved on 2009-07-07. 
  44. ^ Randy Bowersox (2002-06-20). "Hydrology of a Glacial Dominated System, Copper River, Alaska". University of California-Davis. 2. http://watershed.ucdavis.edu/copper_river/background/data/BowersoxCopper.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  45. ^ Laura Cheshire (1997). "Have Snow Shovel, Will Travel". National Snow and Ice Data Center. http://nsidc.org/snow/shovel.html. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  46. ^ Larsen, Dave (2009-01-27). "School districts are using up calamity days". Dayton Daily News (Dayton, Ohio: Cox Enterprises). http://www.daytondailynews.com/n/content/oh/story/news/local/2009/01/27/ddn012709calamityweb.html. Retrieved on 2009-02-05. "Ohio school districts can use five calamity days before they must start adding extra days to the school calendar." 
  47. ^ Willis, Donna (2009-01-30). "Districts Consider Calamity Options". WCMH-TV (Columbus, Ohio: Media General). http://www.nbc4i.com/cmh/news/local/education/article/districts_consider_calamity_options/12343/. Retrieved on 2009-02-05. 
  48. ^ Ferris, Joleen (2009-01-28). "Decision for city schools to stay open prompts calls from irate parents". WKTV (Utica, New York: Smith Media). http://www.wktv.com/news/local/38543532.html. Retrieved on 2009-02-05. 
  49. ^ Wolff, Christine; Tanya Albert (1999-03-09). "Snow may stretch out school year". The Cincinnati Enquirer (Cincinnati, Ohio: Gannett Company). http://www.enquirer.com/editions/1999/03/10/loc_snow_may_stretch_out.html. Retrieved on 2009-02-05. 
  50. ^ David A. Kuemmel (1994). Managing roadway snow and ice control operations. Transportation Research Board. p. 10. ISBN 9780309056663. http://books.google.com/books?id=I3gxuwTE5_MC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=effect+of+snowfall+on+infrastructure&source=bl&ots=kmDWQqfCno&sig=yMOXi2gv5_LJf_o3qNA36e0FSO8&hl=en&ei=nKxUSt-pAY7ElAeIoZXkCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
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  52. ^ M. Baldwin (2002-09-08). "How Cold Can Water Get?". Argonne National Laboratory. http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01243.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-16. 
  53. ^ Christopher Clarey (1998-02-01). "NAGANO '98; Building a Better Snowman Through Science". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/01/sports/nagano-98-building-a-better-snowman-through-science.html?pagewanted=1. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  54. ^ Sam Baldwin (January 2006). "Skiers vs Snowboaders: The Dying Feud". SnowSphere.com. http://www.snowsphere.com/special-features/snowboarding-vs-skiing-the-dying-feud. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
  55. ^ (English) "Snowmobiling Facts". International Snowmobile Manufacturers Associations. 2006. http://www.snowmobile.org/facts_snfcts.asp. Retrieved on 2007-04-23. 
  56. ^ Jeffrey Selingo (2001-02-08). "Machines Let Resorts Please Skiers When Nature Won't". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9900EEDA1631F93BA35751C0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved on 2009-07-08. 
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External links


 
Translations: Snow
Top

Dansk (Danish)
n. - sne, snefald, kokain
v. intr. - sne
v. tr. - drysse, få til at falde som sne

idioms:

  • snow boot    snestøvle, snow boot
  • snow leopard    sneleopard
  • snow line    snegrænse, snelinie
  • snow thrower    snekaster
  • snow tire    vinterdæk
  • snowed in    sneet inde
  • snowed under    begravet

Nederlands (Dutch)
sneeuw, cocaïne, sneeuwen, besneeuwen, bedelven

Français (French)
n. - (Météo) neige, (Radio, TV) neige, neige/cocaïne
v. intr. - neiger
v. tr. - (US) emberlificoter

idioms:

  • snow boot    après-ski
  • snow leopard    léopard des neiges, once
  • snow line    limite des neiges éternelles
  • snow thrower    souffleuse à neige
  • snow tire    pneu-neige, pneu clouté
  • snowed in    (être) bloqué (par la neige)
  • snowed under    être recouvert de neige, (fig) (être) submergé de
  • snowed up    (être) bloqué par la neige

Deutsch (German)
n. - Schnee, Schneefälle
v. - schneien

idioms:

  • snow boot    Schneestiefel
  • snow leopard    Schneeleopard
  • snow line    Schneegrenze
  • snow thrower    Schneefräse
  • snow tire    Winterreifen
  • snowed in    eingeschneit
  • snowed under    eingeschneit, überwältigt
  • snowed up    durch Schnee eingesperrt werden

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - χιόνι, χιονόπτωση, (μτφ.) σωρεία, κατακλυσμός, (αργκό) κοκαϊνη, χιόνι τηλεοπτικής οθόνης
v. - χιονίζω, (μτφ.) κατακλύζω, πλημμυρίζω, (καθομ.) (ΗΠΑ, αργκό) εξαπατώ

idioms:

  • snow boot    χιονάρβυλο
  • snow leopard    (ζωολ.) ίρβις
  • snow line    όριο παγετώνα
  • snow thrower    εκχιονιστήρας
  • snow tire    λάστιχο για τα χιόνια
  • snowed in    αποκλεισμένος από τα χιόνια
  • snowed under    πνιγμένος στη δουλειά κ.λπ.

Italiano (Italian)
nevicare, neve, cocaina

idioms:

  • snow boot    scarponi da neve
  • snow leopard    leopardo bianco
  • snow thrower    spazzaneve
  • snow tire    pneumatici da neve
  • snowed in    bloccato dalla neve
  • snowed under    coperto dalla neve

Português (Portuguese)
n. - neve (f), nevada (f), cabelos brancos (m)
v. - nevar

idioms:

  • snow boot    bota para neve
  • snow leopard    onça, leopardo branco
  • snow line    linha de neve
  • snow thrower    turbo neve, máquina para limpar neve que a empurra para os lados
  • snow tire    pneu para a neve
  • snowed in    reter com neve, obstruir com neve
  • snowed under    cobrir com neve, vencer com grande maioria

Русский (Russian)
снег, снегопад, взбитые белки с сахаром и фруктами, идти (о снеге), сыпать как снег, сыпаться со всех сторон, ошеломлять, уговаривать

idioms:

  • snow boot    теплый сапог
  • snow leopard    снежный барс
  • snow line    нижняя граница вечных снегов, снеговая граница
  • snow thrower    снегоочиститель
  • snow tire    шипованная шина
  • snowed in    занесенный снегом
  • snowed under    заносить снегом, заваливать (чем-л.)

Español (Spanish)
n. - nieve, nevada, cocaína, blanca, mandanga
v. intr. - nevar
v. tr. - esparcir como nieve, cubrir, obstruir, aprisionar con nieve, blanquear (el cabello)

idioms:

  • snow boot    bota para nieve
  • snow leopard    onza
  • snow line    límite de las nieves perpetuas
  • snow thrower    lanzador de nieve
  • snow tire    neumático para nieve
  • snowed in    quedar aislado o bloqueado por la nieve
  • snowed under    estar agobiado
  • snowed up    blanquear el cabello

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - snö, snöfall, kokain (sl.), heroin (sl.)
v. - snöa, strö (ut), imponera på (sl.)

中文(简体)(Chinese (Simplified))
雪, 下雪, 积雪, 纷至沓来, 雪片似地落下, 使雪白, 使像雪般落下, 用雪覆盖

idioms:

  • snow boot    雪靴
  • snow leopard    雪豹
  • snow line    雪线, 万年雪线
  • snow thrower    扫雪机
  • snow tire    雪地防滑轮胎
  • snowed in    被雪困住的
  • snowed under    被雪困住的

中文(繁體)(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 雪, 下雪, 積雪
v. intr. - 下雪, 紛至沓來, 雪片似地落下
v. tr. - 使雪白, 使像雪般落下, 用雪覆蓋

idioms:

  • snow boot    雪靴
  • snow leopard    雪豹
  • snow line    雪線, 萬年雪線
  • snow thrower    掃雪機
  • snow tire    雪地防滑輪胎
  • snowed in    被雪困住的
  • snowed under    被雪困住的

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 눈, 흰 머리, (TV) 전파 장애 등으로 생기는 화면의 흰 반점
v. intr. - 눈이 내리다, 눈처럼 쇄도하다
v. tr. - 눈으로 덮다, ~을 압도하는 듯한 인상을 주다, 깜짝 놀라게 하다

idioms:

  • snowed in    눈에 갇히다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 雪, 積雪, 雪に似た物, ちらつき
v. - 雪が降る, どっと舞い込む, どっと舞い込ませる, 口車に乗せる

idioms:

  • snow boot    雪靴
  • snow leopard    ユキヒョウ
  • snow line    雪線, 降雪線
  • snow thrower    噴射式除雪機
  • snow tire    スノータイヤ
  • snowed in    雪で閉じ込められる

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) كوكايين, ألحلوى ألثلجيه, تساقط ألثلج, ثلج (فعل) يغطي بالثلج, يسقط كالثلج‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮שלג, אבקת-קוקאין, הפרעות/נקודות על מרקע טלוויזיה/מחשב, אבקה דמוית שלג, ממתק עשוי מקרח מרוסק‬
v. intr. - ‮ירד (שלג)‬
v. tr. - ‮שכנע, הרשים‬


 
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American Sign Language
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