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| Soninke soldiers, 1890. |
| Total population |
|---|
| ~ 1 million (2005) |
| Regions with significant populations |
| Mali, Mauritania, Sénégal, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau |
| Languages |
| Religion |
| Related ethnic groups |
The Soninke (also called Sarakole, Seraculeh, or 'Serahuli, and who include subgroups such as the Maraka and the Wangara) are a Mandé people who descend from the Bafour and are closely related to the Imraguen of Mauritania. They were the founders of the ancient empire of Ghana c. 750-1240 CE).
After contact with Muslim Almoravid traders from the north around 1066, the Soninke nobles of neighboring Takrur embraced Islam, being among the earliest sub-Saharan ethnic groups to follow the teachings of Muhammad. The Ghana empire dispersed, resulting in a diaspora which today finds Soninkes in Mali, Senegal, Mauritania, Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. Among this diaspora were famous traders known as the Wangara who spread further afield from traditionally Mande areas, hence the term Wangara is used today in modern Ghana and Burkina Faso to describe the Soninke populations present in urban cities and towns. Today the Soninke number around 1 million. They speak the Soninke language, a Mande language.
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History
Geography
Soninke people today live throughout West Africa, but remain centered around the former homelands of the Ghana Empire and the valley of the upper Senegal river and along the Mali - Senegal border between Nara and Nioro du Sahel. Migrations seeking labor, encouraged under French colonial rule have led many Soninke to build communities in Dakar and other large cities in Africa and beyond. There is a large and growing Soninke community in Paris, France. Trade networks, famously led by the Wangara mercantile confederations, spread soninke people can culture throughout most of Mali and Senegal, southern Mauritania, northern Burkina Faso, as well as parts of the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. The Maraka - Soninke merchant communities and plantations (centered just north of the city of Segou, Mali) were an economic mainspring under the Bambara Empire, and built trade routes throughout the region. Today the Soninke number above 1 million.
Social organization and politics
The ancient empire Soninke was governed by an emperor who had a great power but was not a tyrant. His power was limited by some notables who were in charge of the administration, taxes, army, justice and other duties. So the central government of the empire was composed of the emperor and those nobles that we can consider as important advisors. The peripheral courts had some freedom deciding on their interior problems however they were supervised by the imperial court concerning the problems of all the empire as the army. In the time of Wagadu there was an emperor at the head of the empire followed by the noble’s families. Even after the decline of the empire the majority of the Soninke families still maintained this hierarchy in their villages. In the Soninke social organization everyone occupies a place in that level. You cannot be a king or a smith by choice. It is something that you receive by family passing. It is a merit that you have from you forefathers. So this hierarchy is very important in Soninke culture and it is something that the Soninke respect. This structural social organization is divided in three levels. The first level is the “Hooro” who are the free men. They have the highest social rank. The hooro are the rulers, they have the right to punish and make justice. Among the “Hooro” there are the “tunkalemmu” princes. They are designated to exercise authority. Only they can become king. They have this leadership in their blood. They receive it from their fathers. The next class after the princes “tunnkalemmu” are the “mangu”. The mangu are the advisors of the princes. They are their confidents. When there are some problems among the different classes of “Hooro” or free man they play the role of mediators. The “mangu” origins are “kuralemme” which means warriors. So when there is a war he becomes the chief of the army. The last class of the “hooro” free man is the “modinu” the priest. Their origin is from the influence of Islam in Soninke society. They make justice, and educate the population. They teach them Islam and protect them with prayers. They are very much respected for their knowledge in religion. The second level of the Soninke organization is the “naxamala” which is also divided in many others classes. The “naxamala” are the dependent men. The “tago” or blacksmiths occupy the first class among them. They make the arms and tools of work. They also make jewelry. They are respected for their knowledge in iron. After the blacksmith there comes the carpenter “Sakko”. They are the friends of the inhabitants of the forest. They are the confidents and the masters of devils. They have a big importance because their knowledge in wood is great. Then we have the praise-singer “Jaroo”. During ceremonies they are in charge of animation, speaking, and singing. They are the most famous in the dependent class “naxamala”. They are the only authorized to say anything they want. They are the orator of the society. They detain the history of most important Soninke families. The last class in the “naxamala” class is the cobbler “Garanko”. They are in charge of the leather shoes, saddle of mounting and sheaths of sabers. The last hierarchy of the Soninke social organization after the free-man “horoo” and the dependent men “naxamala” are the slaves known as “komo”. The slaves “komo” work for the masters. Their masters had also to take care of them but it was not always the case. The slaves have been always the force major of labor in the Soninke society. The prosperity of the Soninke society was due to their abundance in the domain of farming. In the past there were more slaves than free-men.
People and culture
Marriage
The different Soninke social classes do not marry one another. It is very important for the Soninke to maintain this social organization so the free-men do not marry the dependent man or the slaves. A priest can marry a princess however a prince cannot marry a priest girl. There are different steps to follow when celebrating a marriage in the Soninke society. If a girl pleases a man he has to send his parents in order to convince the girl family to give their daughter to their son in marriage. If both families agreed they do what is called “I na tamma laga” the engagement. They do it in the mosque. After this step every month the fiancé give to his family in law his “Nakhafa” the contribution of the fiancé to his future wife’s family for their foods and others spending. Every tabaski or other holidays, he has also give meat to his family in law. This is not mandatory if he does not have the means to do it. If both families agreed that it is time for the two new couples to live together they do what is called “futtu” the definitive accord of marriage. They usually do it a Thursday afternoon they send the girl to her husband’s house. In that occasion the friends of the new couples come to spend the day with them in separate rooms in their parent’s house. This event is the “karikompe”. The new married couple has advisors. The boy’s advisor is the “Khoussoumanta-yougo” and the girl’s advisor is the “khoussoumanta-yakhare”. After one week of celebration the women meet to show the gifts that the couple received from their parents mostly from the girl’s mother.[1]
Circumcision the “Birou”
Mamadou Soumare an author said “Above its traditional surgery, the ritual of circumcision makes in evidence, the physical endurance, the pain, the courage, in one word the personality of the child.” Festivities are organized during many weeks starting from the date of circumcision has been chosen by the notables of the village. In order to prepare them psychologically the elder who had been circumcised the year before organized every afternoon “tam-tams” for the new one. Throughout the ceremony they place the “tambour” called “daïné” in the middle the young who are going to be circumcised sit around, and the others teenagers of the village, young girls, women, men and slaves form a circle. During this time the boys surrounded with beautiful scarves “disa” sing for them.[2]
Foods
The Soninke have a variety of cuisine. As an example, breakfast foods include “fonde”, porridge made of millet, sugar, milk, and salt, and “Sombi” porridge made of rice, millet or corn. For lunch “demba tere” and “takhaya” are very common, both containing rice and peanuts, frequent Soninke ingredients. "Dere”, a stew, is a mixture of millet and beans. [3]
Economy
The Soninke traditionally engage in both with trade and agriculture. During the rainy season men and women both cultivate. However women usually stay at home to cook and take care of their children. They also do others works as dyeing cotton material. The dark blue indigo is considered a typical Soninke color. The Soninke attained a high good level of living. Emigration took a huge place in their life. Most of the time women, children and old stay at home alone when the young men go to neighbor cities to find money. From the 1960s until recent years, the majority of West African immigrants in France came from this ethnic group.[4] The Soninke are still now the back bone of countries like the Gambia, Senegal and Mali. Through all history they have been traders in gold, salt and even diamonds.
Religion
From their heritage of the ancient Ghana the Soninke maintained Islam as their religion. They are one of the first West African ethnic groups to convert into Islam.
See also
References
- ^ "Culture Et Tradition". Soninkara.com. 2002. http://www.soninkara.com/main.php3?f=accueil. Retrieved 2006-04-05.
- ^ "The circumcision among Soninke". Soninkara.com. http://www.soninkara.org/societe-soninkara/circoncision/index.php. Retrieved 2006-04-28.
- ^ "Soninke Recipes". Soninkara.com. 2002. http://www.soninkara.org/societe-soninkara/cuisine-soninke/index.php.
- ^ "Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848-1960". http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_33/ai_56027336. Retrieved 2006-04-28.
Bibliography
- (English) François Manchuelle, Origins of Black African Emigration to France : the Labor Migrations of the Soninke, 1948-1987, Santa Barbara, University of California, 1987 (Thèse)
- (French) M. T. Abéla de la Rivière, Les Sarakolé et leur émigration vers la France, Paris, Université de Paris V, 1977 (Thèse de 3 cycle)
- (French) Amadou Diallo, L’éducation en milieu sooninké dans le cercle de Bakel : 1850-1914, Dakar, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, 1994, 36 p. (Mémoire de DEA)
- (French) Alain Gallay, « La poterie en pays Sarakolé (Mali, Afrique Occidentale) », Journal de la Société des Africanistes, Paris, CNRS, 1970, tome XL, n° 1, p. 7-84
- (French) Joseph Kerharo, « La pharmacopée sénégalaise : note sur quelques traitements médicaux pratiqués par les Sarakolé du Cercle de Bakel », Bulletin et mémoires de la Faculté mixte de médecine et de pharmacie de Dakar, t. XII, 1964, p. 226-229
- (French) Kanté Nianguiry, Contribution à la connaissance de la migration "soninké" en France, Paris, Université de Paris VIII, 1986, 726 p. (Thèse de 3 cycle)
- (French) Michael Samuel, Les Migrations Soninke vers la France, Paris, Université de Paris. (Thèse de 3 cycle)
- (French) Badoua Siguine, La tradition épique des forgerons soninké, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 198?, (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
- (French) Badoua Siguine, Le surnaturel dans les contes soninké, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1983, 215 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
- (French) Mahamet Timera, Les Soninké en France : d'un histoire à l'autre, Karthala, 1996, 244 p. ISBN 2865377016
- (French) Louis Léon César Faidherbe, Vocabulaire d'environ 1,500 mots français avec leurs correspondents en ouolof de Saint-Louis, en poular (toucouleur) du Fouta, en soninké (sarakhollé) de Bakel, 1864, Saint-Louis, Imprimerie du Gouvernement, 1864, 70 p.
- (French) Louis Léon César Faidherbe, Langues sénégalaises : wolof, arabe-hassania, soninké, sérère, notions grammaticales, vocabulaires et phrases, E. Leroux, 1887, 267 p.
- (French) Christian Girier, Parlons soninké, l'Harmattan, Paris, 1996, ISBN 2738437699
- (French) Rhonda L. Hartell, Alphabets de langues africaines, Unesco et Summer Institute of Linguistics, Dakar, 1993 ;
- (French) Direction de la promotion des langues nationales du Sénégal, Livret d'auto-formation en Soninké, éditions Kalaama-Edicef, 2001.
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Soninke |
- (French) Site of the commune of Diawara, Sénégal
- (French) Soobe - Association culturelle de Soninké en Egypte
- (French) Diaguily - Portail de Diaguily, ville soninké du sud de la Mauritanie
- (English) Ethnologue - Soninké language at Ethnologue
- (French) Soninkara.com - Portail de la communauté soninké
- (French) Soninkara.org - Société et Culture Soninké - Soninké News
- (English) Asawan.org - Soninke literature - free online library/bookstore
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