Starlings and Mynas (Sturnidae)

(Sturnidae)

Class: Aves

Order: Passeriformes

Suborder: Passeri (Oscines)

Family: Sturnidae

Thumbnail description
Somewhat stocky, small to medium-sized birds, short-winged, short-tailed, stout-legged, with straight bill. Many are black or dark; some have much white or color, many have iridescent plumage; many have colorful bare facial skin or wattles; some are crested

Size
7–17 in (18–43 cm)

Number of genera, species
25–32 genera, 104–118 species

Habitat
Barren semi-desert to grassland, to dry and moist, evergreen and deciduous forest; agricultural and urban areas

Conservation status
Extinct: 5 species; Critically Endangered: 2 species; Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 5 species; Near Threatened: 8 species; Data Deficient: 1 species

Distribution
Naturally distributed through Eurasia and Africa with one genus reaching Australia; center of diversity is in the Old World tropics. As a result of introductions, there are now breeding sturnids on all continents, except South America and Antarctica and on many oceanic islands

Evolution and systematics

Based on anatomical evidence, the closest living relatives of sturnids have been suggested to be drongos (Dicruridae), Old World orioles (Oriolidae), crows (Corvidae), or mimic thrushes (Mimidae). Based on nest structure, other scientists have suggested affinities with weavers (Ploceidae). Several biochemical analyses, including DNA-DNA hybridization studies, support a close relationship between Old World Sturnidae and New World Mimidae, and Sibley and Monroe (1990) included these two groups as tribes (Sturnini: starlings and mynahs; Mimini: mockingbirds, thrashers, catbirds) within the family Sturnidae.

The family Sturnidae, recognized here as starlings, mynas, and oxpeckers, includes about 27 genera and 111 species divided into two subfamilies, the Sturninae (starlings and mynas: 26 genera, 109 species) and the Buphaginae (oxpeckers: 1 genus, 2 species). The number of genera and species recognized is in a great state of flux as a result of many little-known, closely related, geographically variable forms. Added to the inherent diversity in the group are divergent opinions of scientists as to relationships. New technologies and greater knowledge of the behavioral ecology of starlings promise resolution to many systematic questions.

Physical characteristics

Starlings and mynahs are small to medium-sized birds that vary in length from 7–17 in (18–43 cm). The terms starling and myna have no significance relative to their relationships with one another, but rather with the common names applied in different regions. The word starling comes from Old English and almost certainly was applied to what is now known as the European starling. The word myna or mynah comes from the Hindi word maina, which has its origins in the Sanskrit word madana meaning "joyful" or "it bubbles"; this probably refers to the bubbly notes of the hill myna. In practice, the common names of many sturnids have bounced back and forth between being starlings and being mynas. For example, the Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) is often called the Bali starling. In general, however, those sturnids that look more like the European starling are referred to as starlings, and those that look a lot like the common hill myna tend to be called mynas.

Most starlings and mynas are stocky with strong legs and a strong, straight bill, a short squared-off tail, and rounded (in resident and forest species) to somewhat long (in migrant and open country species) wings. While sturnid bills are generally straight and often nearly as long as the head, they range from thin and pointed (e.g., European starling) to heavy and somewhat blunt (e.g., white-eyed starling, Aplonis brunneicapilla). Mynas often show white wing patches on the primaries. Sturnids often have long, narrow hackle feathers on the neck; those of males are generally most distinctive. Juveniles tend to have darker, duller, sometimes streaked plumage. Starlings have only one molt a year, following breeding, but seasonal differences in appearance are found in some species as a result of wear. The European starling, for example, has white tips to body feathers in fresh plumage, giving a spotted appearance in fall and winter. These tips wear off, leaving the purple-green iridescent black plumage of the breeding season.

Distribution

This family was naturally distributed only in Africa and Eurasia, with a single genus that had reached the South Pacific and northeast Australia. Today, however, the family has breeding populations on every continent, except South America and Antarctica as a result of deliberate introductions and accidental releases of species. The champion among these feathered conquerors is the European starling, which now breeds throughout North America and in Australia, New Zealand, and on many islands.

Habitat

Habitats of sturnids range from barren semi-desert to temperate grasslands, to tropical savanna, to temperate woodlands, to tropical rainforest. The greater numbers of species seem to be associated with forested areas (e.g., Aplonis species), tied to them by their need for cavities as nest sites. Those species that are most wide-ranging and most migratory, however, tend to be ground-feeding, grassland species (e.g., Sturnus species).

Behavior

Most starlings and mynas are at least somewhat social, often nesting in loose colonies. Some are downright gregarious and aggressive, especially some of the introduced species. This has created serious problems for endemic species that share their foraging or nesting niches, and often for local agriculture that has had to contend with their numbers. Associated with their social nature are voices that are loud and varied, though often raucous, sometimes mechanical, and rarely melodious. Many species are excellent mimics.

A few species such as the brown-winged (Aplonis grandis) and Shelley's (Lamprotornis shelleyi) starlings are much more solitary in their nesting, but at least the Shelley's starling still gathers in non-breeding flocks. Solitary species tend to be more shy and quiet.

Starlings have exceptional flight abilities. They are swift, yet highly adept at maneuvering, so much so that dense flocks of starlings can twist and turn as one. Temperate-nesting species often migrate to warmer climates for the winter; migratory flights are accomplished at night.

Most tropical species are more or less forest birds, but some, especially in temperate areas, forsake the trees for very open habitats. The only requisite is that there be some substitute for tree cavities as nest sites. Niches in rocky areas, cavities of other birds in dirt banks, nest boxes, and recesses on buildings and bridges often fill that need.

The soft-part colors of sturnids are important in social circumstances and seasonally vary somewhat in intensity, becoming brighter during the breeding season. Examples include the bill color of the European starling, the blue facial color of the Bali myna, and the yellow wattles of several mynas.

Feeding ecology and diet

Several genera (e.g., Aplonis, Mino, Basilornis, Streptocitta, Ampeliceps) focus their appetite on fruits and berries. Members of the genus Sturnus tend to be more insectivorous, but are very opportunistic. Their northward migrations in spring in the Northern Hemisphere allow them to take advantage of the longer days and the proliferation of insects associated with renewal of plant growth in temperate grasslands. Most species show seasonal shifts in diet, often including an increase in animal food during nesting, thus providing protein for growing nestlings. This is followed by a shift to fruit in late summer, taking advantage of the season's largesse. A few species such as the red-winged starling (Onychognathus morio) are essentially omnivorous, feeding on everything from fruits and insects to grain, dead fish, garbage, and nectar.

A characteristic of starlings that aids in their search for food is a unique probing behavior. A starling probes into the substrate and then opens its bill, pushing the substrate aside, to create an open area in which to look for food. With a starling in hand, when fingers are loosely closed over the bill, the bird, seemingly as a reflex, will open its bill, pushing the fingers away. This behavioral adaptation of starlings is also reflected in adaptations of the muscles and the bony parts of the skull to which those muscles are attached.

Oxpeckers (subfamily Buphaginae) fill a unique foraging niche, removing ticks and flies from the head and neck of large mammals ranging from giraffes and rhinoceroses to cattle. They also often take some blood and tissue from their host, leading to local campaigns to eradicate the birds.

Reproductive biology

Most sturnids are secondary cavity nesters, often somewhat reliant on woodpeckers and barbets for their nest sites. They compensate for an inability to make their own nest cavities with an aggressiveness that often allows them to appropriate newly excavated ones. Other sturnids such as Tristram's red-winged starling (Onychognathus tristramii) make use of niches among rocks, and many have expanded their nest-site preferences to include nest boxes and recesses associated with buildings and other man-made structures.

Once in possession of a cavity, sturnids typically construct a bulky nest of grasses, leaves, fine twigs, and other materials. Sometimes these include man-made objects, and there have been cases of European starlings adding discarded, but lighted, cigarettes to a nest with disastrous results. The amount of material added tends to be whatever it takes to fill the cavity. Redbilled oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) add the dung of ungulates to their nests. Several species add flowers or green leaves to the nest, and it has been suggested that they may select plants laden with chemicals having insecticidal properties. Both sexes are usually involved in nest construction, and nests may be refurbished and cavities used again and again.

Starling eggs are often pale blue, but sometimes white to cream-colored. They may be solid in color (Acridotheres, Leucopsar, Gracupica, Sturnia, Temenuchus, Pastor, Creatophora, Sturnus) or have dark spots on them (most species in other genera). The occurrence of colored eggs and eggs with spots has been evidence that sturnid ancestors were open-nesting birds and that cavity nesting is a relatively recent secondary development.

In some cases, only the female incubates; in others, both sexes incubate. Incubation periods are sometimes less than two weeks. Sturnid young at hatching are generally pink, at most with sparse patches of down on top of the head and back, and have their eyes closed for the first few days of life. Both parents contribute to feeding the young and, in some species (e.g., the red-billed oxpecker and possibly the babbling starling, Neocichla gutteralis), there are helpers at the nest who feed the young as well. In such cooperative breeding, the helpers are usually offspring of the same pair from earlier efforts. Nestlings often fledge within three weeks, but young oxpeckers may remain in the nest for nearly a month. Many species can produce two, sometimes three, broods in a year.

Conservation status

At least five starlings have become Extinct within historic times. The Rodriguez starling and Reunion starling, island endemics in the Mascarene Islands, may have disappeared in the eighteenth century. The Kosrae Mountain starling (Aplonis corvine), of Kosrae (Kusai) Island in the Caroline Islands, was first and last seen in 1828. The Norfolk Island starling (Aplonis fusca fusca) is believed to have disappeared in 1925, and its sister race, the Lord Howe Island starling (A. f. hulliana), was last seen in 1919.

The Pohnpei Mountain starling (Aplonis pelzelni), found only on Pohnpei (Ponape) in Micronesia, is considered Critically Endangered and may now be Extinct. The Bali myna is also Critically Endangered, suffering from capture for the cage-bird trade, with only 14 individuals known in the wild in 1998.

The white-eyed starling (Aplonis brunneicapilla) of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands is Endangered and suffers from taking of chicks for food, a practice aided by the colonial nesting of the species. The black-winged starling (Acridotheres melanopterus) of western Indonesia is also Endangered and suffering from the cage-bird trade.

Vulnerable species include the Rarotonga starling (Aplonis cinerascens), atoll starling (Aplonis feadensis), mountain starling (Aplonis santovestris), Abbott's starling (Cinnyricinclus femoralis), and the white-faced starling (Sturnus albofrontatus). The Rarotonga starling from Rarotonga in the Cook Islands is rare and probably numbered fewer than 100 individuals in 1987.

Classified Near Threatened are the Tanimbar starling (Aplonis crassa), yellow-eyed starling (Aplonis mystacea), rusty-winged starling (Aplonis zelandica), helmeted myna (Basilornis galeatus), Apo myna (Basilornis miranda), Sri Lanka myna (Gracula ptilogenys), copper-tailed glossy-starling (Lamprotornis cupreocauda), and the bare-eyed myna (Streptocitta albertinae).

The preponderance of starlings of the genus Aplonis on this list of threatened species is primarily a result of the diversity of this group and the cause of that diversity: isolation on small islands of the South Pacific and Indonesia. With limited habitat, bird populations are also limited. As human populations have grown on these islands, forest habitats have come under intense pressure. The colonial nature of many of the birds has also facilitated use of these birds as food or their capture for the cage-bird trade.

Significance to humans

Many species are of economic importance as agricultural pests. Some, such as the European starling, occur in such numbers in cities that the uric acid from their droppings damages buildings and monuments. Some are considered hazardous to human health because of their large roosting congregations near or in human cities. Many help control insect pests; others help maintain forest tree-species diversity through dispersal of seeds. The ability of many starlings and mynas to mimic the human voice has made them particularly attractive in the cage-bird trade, but starlings and mynas are also often captured for food. A visit to the bird market in any Indonesian city will reveal many starlings and mynas available for small sums. A visit to even major hotels in Indonesia will also reveal burung burung on the menu—birds, including starlings and mynas, are regular fare.

Species accounts

Resources

BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, 2000.

Cramp, S., and C.M. Perrins, eds. The Birds of the Western Palearctic, Vol. 8. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Feare, C. The Starling. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1984.

Feare, C., and A. Craig. Starlings and Mynas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Fry, C.H., S. Keith, and E.K. Urban. The Birds of Africa, Vol. 6. New York, NY: Academic Press, 2000.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp. A Guide to the Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Hollom, P.A.D., R.F. Porter, S. Christensen, and I. Willis. Birds of the Middle East and North Africa. London, England: Poyser, 1988.

Lever, C. Naturalised Birds of the World. London, England: Longmans, 1987.

Sibley, C.G., and J.E. Ahlquist. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Sibley, C.G., and B.L. Monroe, Jr. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Sibley, C.G., and J.E. Ahlquist. "The Relationships of the Starlings (Sturnidae: Sturnini) and the Mockingbirds (Sturnidae: Mimini)." Auk 101 (1984): 230–243.

[Article by: Jerome A. Jackson, PhD]