A stereotype is a type of logical oversimplification in which all the members of a class or set are considered to be definable by an easily distinguishable set of characteristics. The term is often used with a negative connotation, as stereotypes can be used to deny individuals respect or legitimacy based on their membership in a particular group. In America, the term has long been associated with the Civil Rights movement and is imbued with a semblance of racial context.
Stereotypes often form the basis of prejudice and are usually employed to explain real or imaginary differences due to race, gender, religion, age, ethnicity, socio-economic class, disability, and occupation, among the limitless groups one may be identified with. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image based on the belief that there are attitudes, appearances, or behaviors shared by all members of a group. Stereotypes are forms of social consensus rather than individual judgments. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely correlated if correlated at all.
The term "stereotype" derives from Greek στερεός (stereos) "solid, firm"[1] + τύπος (tupos) "blow, impression, engraved mark"[2] hence "solid impression". The term, in its modern psychology sense, was first used by Walter Lippmann in his 1922 work Public Opinion[3] although in the printing sense it was first coined 1798.
Causes
Sociologists believe that mental categorizing is necessary and inescapable. One perspective on how to understand stereotyping process is through the categories or ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the group that one associates with or aspires to join. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. They are seen as lesser or inferior than the ingroups.
A second perspective is that of automatic and implicit or subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without noticing. Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by an implicit or conscious check which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by implicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious stereotypes.
A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing perspectives.
One reason people stereotype is that it is too difficult to take in all of the complexities of other people. Even though stereotyping is inaccurate, it is efficient. Categorization is an essential human capability because it enables us to simplify, predict, and organize our world. Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy categories, there is every incentive to avoid processing new or unexpected information about each individual. Assigning general group characteristics to members of that group saves time and satisfies the need to predict the social world.
People also tend to stereotype because of the need to feel good about oneself. Stereotypes protect one from anxiety and enhance self-esteem. By designating one’s own group as the standard or normal group and assigning others to groups considered inferior or abnormal, it provides one with a sense of worth.
Childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-perpetuating.
Many scientific theories have derived from the sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. During the early studies it was believed or suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. They now know differently. Scientist and theorists have concluded that stereotypes do not only exist, but are actually a never ending chain of thoughts.
Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. For instance: Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that women read into appearance more than men. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one’s own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. Stereotyping is principally theory and is not based much on factual evidence. An example of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based on external appearance. The explanation for one’s actions is his or her internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance.
Sociologist Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, “One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals” [4]. Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes, by definition, the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.
Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means of explaining and justifying differences between groups, or system justification. Social status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal characteristics of group members.[5] Groups which enjoy fewer social and economic advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain and justify disparities, such as lower employment rates. Although disadvantaged group members may have greater difficulty finding employment due to in-group favoritism, racism, and related social forces, the disadvantaged group member is unjustifiably characterized as 'unmotivated' (he could find a job if he looked hard enough), 'unintelligent' (he's not smart enough to have that job), and 'lazy' (he would rather take hand-outs than work).
Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences.[6] This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African.[7] Yet within American culture, Black and White Americans are increasingly seen as completely different groups.
Effects, accuracy, terminology
Stereotypes can have a negative and positive impact on individuals. Joshua Aronson and Claude M. Steele have done research on the psychological effects of stereotyping, particularly its effect on African-Americans and women.[8] They argue that psychological research has shown that competence is highly responsive to situation and interactions with others.[9] They cite, for example, a study which found that bogus feedback to college students dramatically affected their IQ test performance, and another in which students were either praised as very smart, congratulated on their hard work, or told that they scored high. The group praised as smart performed significantly worse than the others. They believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects are not just limited to minority groups. Mathematically competent white males, mostly math and engineering students, were asked to take a difficult math test. One group was told that this was being done to determine why Asians were scoring better. This group performed significantly worse than the other group.[9]:443
Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are:
- Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance
- Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group
- Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from entering or succeeding in activities or fields
The effects of stereotyping can fluctuate, but for the most part they are negative, and not always apparent until long periods of time have passed. Over time, some victims of negative stereotypes display self-fulfilling prophecy behavior, in which they assume that the stereotype represents norms to emulate. Negative effects may include forming inaccurate opinions of people, scapegoating, erroneously judgmentalism, preventing emotional identification, distress, and impaired performance. Stereotyping painfully reminds those being judged of how society views them.
Sometimes "stereotype" and "prejudice" are confused. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups, based on some prior assumptions. Stereotypes are created based on some idea of abstract familiarity. Prejudices are more specific - they are predispositions to differential behavior patterns.
Role in art and culture
English prejudice in 1796 was fundamental
Stereotypes are common in various cultural media, where they take the form of dramatic stock characters. These characters are found in the works of playwright Bertolt Brecht, Dario Fo, and Jacques Lecoq, who characterize their actors as stereotypes for theatrical effect. In commedia dell'Arte this is similarly common. The instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they are effective in advertising and situation comedy. These stereotypes change, and in modern times only a few of the stereotyped characters shown in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress would be recognizable.
In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its unique characterization. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because one feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype.
Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in narratology where genre and categorization automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer.
The teen sitcom, Saved By The Bell features a typical group of high school stereotypes such as a class clown (Zack Morris), a jock (A.C. Slater), a nerd (Samuel "Screech" Powers), a cheerleader (Kelly Kapowski), a feminist (Jessie Spano), and a superficial fashion plate (Lisa Turtle). Some observed the sitcom, like many teen sitcoms of that time, in addition to stereotyping people, stereotyping an institution itself, that of high school. TV stereotypes of high schools have often promoted a "typical American school" as football games, fashion styles, skirt chasing, and not much devotion to academics or studying.
In movies and TV the halo effect is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people, explained by Greenwald and Banaji from Psychological Review.
Gender stereotyping
Female Gender Male Gender Transgender
Racial and ethnic stereotyping
Native Americans
IIn the United States, the stratification and separation of groups, especially racial minorities, began in the nation’s earliest years of colonisation. With the colonists’ first contact with the Native Americans, the stereotype of “the savage” was born.[4] They were first thought of as "noble savages" by the European because of their ability to subsist on the land. Over time, as settlers spread west, Natives American were seen as obstacles and their image became more negative. Native Americans were portrayed in popular media as wild, primitive, uncivilised, dangerous people who continuously attack white settlers, cowboys, and stagecoaches and ululate while holding one hand in front of their mouths. They speak invariably in a deep voice and use stop words like "How" and "Ugh". In cartoons, comic strips and animated cartoons their skin colour was depicted as deep red. In westerns and other media portrayals they are usually called "Indians". Examples of this stereotypical image of Native Americans can be found in many American westerns until the early 1960s and cartoons like Peter Pan. In other stereotypes, they smoked peace pipes, wore face paints, danced round totem poles (often with a hostage tied to them), sent smoke signals, lived in tepees, wore feathered head-dresses, scalped their foes, and said 'um' instead of 'the' or 'a'. As colonisation continued in the US, groups were separated into categories like “Christians” and “heathens” and “civilised” and “savage”.[4] It took merely decades for these attitudes and ideas to firmly plant themselves in the minds of Americans; today’s stereotypes of Native Americans are rooted in the colonists’ initial thoughts. The media perpetuates these stereotypes by portraying Native Americans in a negative light, such as savage and hostile.[4] Many Whites view Native Americans as devoid of self-control and unable to handle responsibility. Malcolm D. Holmes and Judith A. Antell hypothesise that such ideas about Native Americans form the ideology that is used today to justify the disparity between Whites and Native Americans.[10] This very rigid, fixed framework on the perception of Native Americans and other stereotypical depictions of other races and nationalities has been continued in many books, films, cartoons, comic strips, plays and songs. Today, the 19th century stereotype of Native Americans lives on for the majority of people. Modern Native Americans as they live today are rarely portrayed in popular culture, one notable exception being Chief from One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest. However, there are more positive images, of Native Americans being noble, peaceful people, who lived in harmony with nature and each other, e.g. Dances with Wolves.
Inuit stereotypes
Inuit or Eskimo people are always dressed in parkas, carving out trinkets, living in igloos, go fishing with an harpoon, travel by sleigh and huskies, eat cod-liver oil and the men are usually called Nanook in reference to the famous documentary Nanook of the North. Eskimo children usually have a seal for a best friend. Eskimoes are often believed to have an unusually large number of words for snow. This is however an urban legend. Eskimoes are sometimes shown rubbing each other noses together as some sort of greeting ritual (Eskimo kissing) They're also often depicted surrounded by polar bears, walrusses and inaccurately penguins. Penguins only live on the South Pole and not on the North Pole. Sometimes Eskimoes themselves are depicted living on the South Pole, which is again wrong for the same reason.
Black stereotypes
Early stereotypes
Early
minstrel shows lampooned the supposed stupidity of black people. Detail from cover of
The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843
In centuries before and during the first half of the 20th century black people were often depicted as dumb, evil, lazy, poor, animalistic, smelly, uncivilized, un-Christian [4] people. The early British colonists brought these initial thoughts with them to the US. White colonists commonly believed that black people were inferior to white people. These thoughts helped to justify black slavery and the institution of many laws that continually condoned inhumane treatment and perpetuated to keep black people in a lower socioeconomic position. [4]. Black people were usually depicted as slaves or servants, working in cane fields or carrying large piles of cotton. They were often portrayed as devout Christians going to church and singing gospel music. In many vaudeville shows, minstrel acts, cartoons, comics and animated cartoons of this period they were depicted as sad, lazy, dim-witted characters with big lips who sing bluesy songs and are good dancers, but get excited when confronted with dice games, chickens or watermelons (examples: all the characters portrayed by Stepin Fetchit and black characters in cartoons like "Sunday Go to Meetin' Time" and "All This and Rabbit Stew"). A more joyful black image, yet still very stereotypical, was provided by eternally happy black characters like Uncle Tom, Uncle Remus and Louis Armstrong's equally joyous stage persona. Another popular stereotype from this era was the black who is scared of ghosts (and usually turns white out of fear). Butlers were sometimes portrayed as black (for example the butler in many Shirley Temple movies). Housemaids were usually depicted as black, heavy-set middleaged women who dress in large skirts (examples of this type are Mammy Two-Shoes, Aunt Jemima, Beulah and more recently the title character of Big Momma's House). Children are often pickaninnies like Little Black Sambo and Golliwogg. Black jive (dialect) was also often used in comedy, like for instance in the show Amos 'n Andy.
African black people were usually depicted as primitive, childlike, cannibalistic persons who live in tribes, carry spears, believe in witchcraft and worship their wizard. White colonists are depicted tricking them by selling junk in exchange for valuable things and/or scaring them with modern technology. A well-known example of this image is Tintin in Africa. When white people are caught by African tribes they are usually put in a large, black cauldron so they can be cooked and eaten. Sometimes black Africans are depicted as pygmies with childlike behavior so that they can be ridiculed as being similar to children. Other stereotypical images are the male black African dressed in lip plates or with a bone sticking through his nasal septum. Stereotypical female black African depictions include the bare breasted woman with large breasts and notably fat buttocks (examples of this stereotype are the 19th century sideshow attraction Saartjie Baartman and Robert Crumb's comic strip character Angelfood McSpade) or the woman who wears multiple rings around her giraffe-like neck (note: this type of neck ornament is also common in Burma with women from the Kayan tribe, but is generally associated with Africa (like in the Bugs Bunny cartoon "Which Is Witch").
Secretary of State John C. Calhoun arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said "Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death."
Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of Black people was still frequently questioned. Lewis Terman wrote in The Measurement of Intelligence in 1916:
"(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the sense of the world…their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stock from which they come…Children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. They cannot master abstractions, but they can be made efficient workers…There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusual prolific breeding.)"
Modern black stereotypes
Since the 1960s the stereotypical image of black people has changed in some media. More positive depictions appeared where black people and African-Americans are portrayed as great athletes and superb singers and dancers. In many films and television series since the 1970s black people are depicted as good natured, kind, honest and intelligent persons. Often they are the best friend of the white protagonist (examples: Miami Vice, Lethal Weapon, Magnum Force). Some critics believed this political correctness led to another stereotypical image where black people are often depicted too positive. 1989 showed that blacks were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms.[10] Political activist and one-time presidential candidate Rev. Jesse Jackson said in 1985 that the news media portray blacks as less intelligent than we are.[11] Film director Spike Lee explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people,".
Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.[12] In a 1997 study on racial stereotypes in sports, participants were shown a photograph of a white or a black basketball player. They then listened to a recorded radio broadcast of a basketball game. White photographs were rated as exhibiting significantly more intelligence in the way they played the game, even though the radio broadcast and target player represented by the photograph were the same throughout the trial.[13] Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights 'natural black athleticism' has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.[14]
Patricia J. Williams, writer for The Nation, said this of Jar Jar Binks, a character from the 1999 and 2002 Star Wars films The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, respectively: "...intentionally or not, Jar Jar's pratfalls and high jinks borrow heavily from the genre of minstrelsy. Despite the amphibian get-up, his manchild-like idiocy is imported directly from the days of Amos 'n' Andy." Many aspects of Jar Jar's character are believed to be highly reminiscent of the archetypes portrayed in blackface minstrelsy.[15])
North African, Middle Eastern and Muslim stereotypes
White American stereotypes
Especially in European countries, White Americans are stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-important, unintelligent, decadent, prudish on sexual matters, and obese. The image of the obese American could be due to perception of the American diet, such as the popularity and global spread of American fast food franchises such as McDonald's, Burger King, KFC, which has fueled America's obesity crisis.[16] Another popular American stereotype is the cowboy, the overconfident cigar chomping business man (see for instance Tintin in America, where both stereotypes are present) and the ignorant tourist couple who has no interest or respect for authentic culture (see for instance the American tourist couples depicted in the Fawlty Towers episode "Waldorf Salad", Monty Python's Meaning of Life and Flushed Away). After World War II the countries who were freed from their oppressors were very positive about the US and gladly embraced American products like Coca Cola, chewing gum and Hollywood films. This international positive American image changed drastically during the 1960s and 1970s at the height of the Vietnam War. Since then Americans are seen globally in a more negative light as arrogant, gung-ho, ruthless, imperialistic, capitalistic warmongers and destroyers of authentic international cultures and the natural environment. This negative stereotypical image has remained intact over the years, also due to negative foreign news or documentary reports that often show Americans who are either racist, obese, supporters of wars in foreign countries, gun crazy, obsessed with God and Jesus, reacting against sex or nudity in the media and extremely paranoid of terrorist attacks. In recent years, some stereotypes of whites living in the rural Western United States have emerged. Although these stereotypes show some similarities with southern redneck stereotypes, they are unique, usually revolving around cowboy culture, survivalism, or Mormonism. One stereotype is the shotgun-toting, antisocial, fundamentalist conspiracy theorist who lives in a wooden shack and fears outsiders. He is typically waiting and preparing for some sort of apocalyptic event involving the Antichrist and/or a government that attempts to dismantle the constitution. This stereotype is likely the result of various incidents during the 1990s.
In the US itself white people from the Southern states are frequently used as comic characters. They are depicted as angry and/or dimwitted rednecks and/or yokels who are ultraconservative, devoutly religious, Ku Klux Klan members, still carry the Confederate Flag around, grab their guns when encountering strangers and speak with a typical accent. Sometimes incest relations between them and their siblings are suggested. Examples of these stereotypes are Cletus Spuckler, Kenneth the Page, Larry the Cable Guy, The Beverly Hillbillies, several characters in the films Deliverance and O Brother, Where Art Thou? and the Family Guy episode "To Love and Die in Dixie".
A lot of these American stereotypes are based on American sitcoms where characters like Al Bundy and Archie Bunker are seen as representative for the typical dumb, cultureless white American. Eric Cartman on South Park imposes Anti-Americanism to the darkest extreme due to him possessing all the ferocious stereotypes, from a self cantered spoilt brat to a Neo-Nazi. There are many other examples throughout the media, but the classic example is Homer Simpson, the obese, lazy and dim-witted middle American from the cartoon, The Simpsons.[17] The show itself parodies many aspects of American life, culture and society.[18]
However in defense of the American character they are commonly accepted as being very affectionate toward animals and pets. [19]
Irish stereotypes
The cartoon above (New Physiognomy, New York, 1866), contrasts Florence Nightingale, the
Crimean War nurse, with "Bridget McBruiser", the stereotypical Irish woman.
Scientific Racism from an American magazine,
Harper’s Weekly, says that the Irish are similar to 'Negroes.'
An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by Mary J. Hickman and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "other", or a different race in the construction of the English nationalist myth (of course this view no longer exists in any way today). Likewise, the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away and create their own homeland, which they finally did in the 1920s. [20]
Benign in comparison to some of the more vulgar generalizations against other ethnicities but nonetheless incorrect are those accusing the Irish as quick-tempered brawlers and alcoholics. One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted Irish immigrants as simian and racially different from Anglo-Saxons. One American doctor in the 1850s, James Redfield, argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character; likening the physiognomies of human ethnic groups to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, Negroes like elephants and Englishmen like bulls.[21] In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers. [22]
Irish are also stereotypically viewed as stupid and the butt of many jokes. An example of this would be the an englishman, an irishman and a scotsman joke, which usually ends in the Irishman doing something stupid.
Jewish stereotypes
Antisemitic caricature based on racial stereotypes, 1873
Jewish people have been stereotyped throughout the centuries as black sheep to blame on everything that went wrong in society. Antisemitism continued throughout the centuries and reached a climax in the Third Reich during World War II. Jews are still stereotyped as greedy, nit-picky, stingy misers who are focused on money. They have been often shown counting money or collecting diamonds. Early films such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent) stereotyped Jews as "scheming merchants."[23]. In caricatures and cartoons they're often depicted having curly hair, large hooknoses, lips and wearing kippahs. Christian fundamentalists have often held them responsible for the death of Jesus Christ. Common objects, phrases and traditions used to emphasize or ridicule Jewishness include bagels, playing violin, klezmer, circumcision, haggling and phrases like "Mazal Tov", "Shalom" and "Oy Vey".
Other Jewish stereotypes are the rabbi, the complaining and guilt-inflicting Jewish mother stereotype, the spoiled and materialistic Jewish-American Princess and the often meek Nice Jewish Boy.
East Asian and South Asian Stereotypes
See also Stereotypes of East Asians and Stereotypes of South Asians
Hispanic/Latino Stereotypes
Main Article: Stereotypes of Hispanics and Hispanophobia
Sexual orientation stereotypes
People with negative views of gay, lesbian, and transgender people often use stereotypes about them to justify their attacks. Sometimes, it has also fueled violence against LGBT people. According to ABC News, "Gay activists often criticize media coverage of gay pride parades, saying, correctly, that the media focus on the extreme, the more flamboyantly feminine men and very masculine women. But that's not us, they say. Most of us are just like everyone else."[24]
The emotional pain caused by stereotyping often comes from society at large, but it can also come from other gay people.[25]
Etymology
The word stereotype is of Greek origin (στερεότυπος), literally meaning "solid-kind". It was invented by Firmin Didot in the world of printing; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original typographical element, used for printing instead of the original. American journalist Walter Lippmann coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying "Whether right or wrong, ...imagination is shaped by the pictures seen... Consequently, they lead to stereotypes that are hard to shake." (Public Opinion, 1922, 95-156).[26] In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype.[27]
The first reference to "stereotype", in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change".[28]
Specialised use in ethology
In ethology, stereotyped behavior or fixed action pattern is an innate, pre-programmed response that is repeated when an animal is exposed to an environmental innate releasing mechanism.
Criminal Profiling
Offender profiling is a criminal investigative tool which uses details relating to a criminal's Modus Operandi in order to develop a detailed set of psychological characteristics of the offender.
See also
References
- ^ Stereos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
- ^ Tupos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
- ^ Milton Kleg (August 1993). Hate Prejudice and Racism. State University of New York Press. ISBN 079141535X.
- ^ a b c Hurst, Charles E. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. 6. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007
- ^ Jost, JT; Banaji, MB (1994). "The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness". British Journal of Social Psychology 33: 1–27.
- ^ Brewer, M (1979). "In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis". Psychological Bulletin 86: 307–324. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307.
- ^ McAndrew, FT; Akande, A (1995). "African perceptions of Americans of African and European descent". Journal of Social Psychology 135 (5): 649–655.
- ^ Steele CM, Aronson J (November 1995). "Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans". J Pers Soc Psychol 69 (5): 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797. PMID 7473032. http://content.apa.org/journals/psp/69/5/797.
- ^ a b Aronson J, Steele CM. (2005). Chapter 24:Stereotypes and the Fragility of Academic Competence, Motivation, and Self-Concept. In Handbook of Competence, [ p. 436].
- ^ The Portrayal of Race, Ethnicity and Nationality in Televised International Athletic Events
- ^ Jackson Assails Press On Portrayal of Blacks (NYT)
- ^ Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman ISBN 0395822920
- ^ "White Men Can't Jump": Evidence for the Perceptual Confirmation of Racial Stereotypes Following a Basketball Game Jeff Stone, W. Perry, John M. Darley. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 1997, Vol. 19, No. 3, Pages 291-306
- ^ The Ball Curve: Calculated Racism and the Stereotype of African American Men Ronald E. Hall Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Sep., 2001), pp. 104-119
- ^ Patricia J. Williams: "Racial Ventriloquism". The Nation. June 17, 1999. http://www.thenation.com/doc/19990705/williams. Retrieved on June 11 2006.
- ^ Brian Wansink and Mike Huckabee (2005), “De-Marketing Obesity,” California Management Review, 47:4 (Summer), 6-18.
- ^ Kelly Whiteside; Andy Gardiner (2006-08-20). "USA needs to find the net". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/soccer/worldcup/2006-06-20-us-ghana-preview_x.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-09.
- ^ Turner, p. 78
- ^ Julia Dvorko; BCC Research (2001-01-20). "The Pet Industry: Food, Accessories, Health Products and Services". BCC Research. http://www.bccresearch.com/report/FOD007G.html.
- ^ Deconstructing Whiteness: Irish Women in Britain Mary J. Hickman, Bronwen Walter Feminist Review, No. 50, The Irish Issue: The British Question (Summer, 1995), pp. 5-19 doi:10.2307/1395487
- ^ [1]
- ^ Kerry Soper, "Performing 'Jiggs': Irish Caricature and Comedic Ambivalence toward Asøsimilation and the American Dream in George McManus's Bringing Up Father." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 4.2 (2005): 72 pars. 30 Mar. 2007 online.
- ^ The Movies, Race, and Ethnicity: Jews
- ^ "Gay Stereotypes: Are They True?". ABC News. Sept. 15, 2006. http://i.abcnews.com/2020/Story?id=2449185&page=3.
- ^ Ramon Johnson. "Coming Out Step-by-Step". About.com. http://gaylife.about.com/od/comingout/ss/comingout_4.htm.
- ^ Ewen and Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality, 2006, 3-10.
- ^ <Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage.> Springfield, Illinois: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1994. p. 250.
- ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
Bibliography
- Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York (Seven Stories Press) 2006
- Stereotype & Society A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived
- Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
- Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
- Are Blonds Really Dumb? An article on Stereotyping
- Are Stereotypes True?
- Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady Research about the effects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on encouraging/discouraging performance.
- Turner, Chris (2004). Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation. Toronto: Random House Canada. ISBN 0-679-31318-4.
- Crawford, M. & Unger, R. (2004). Women and Gender: A Feminist Psychology. McGraw Hill New York. New York. 45-49.*
- Spitzer, B.L., Henderson, K, A., & Zavian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40, 545-565.*
- Terracciano A, Abdel-Khalek AM, Adám N, et al. (Oct 2005). "National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures". Science 310 (5745): 96–100. doi:10.1126/science.1117199. PMID 16210536.
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Racism |
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| History of racism |
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| Racist ideologies |
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| Acts of racism |
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| Racial violence |
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| Racism against groups |
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| Racist groups |
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Anti-racist groups
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