- A ruler of a Muslim country, especially of the former Ottoman Empire.
- A powerful person: a sultan of vice and corruption.
[French, from Old French, ruler of Turkey, from Turkish, from Arabic sulṭān, from Aramaic šulṭānā, ruler, from šəlaṭ, to rule.]
sultan
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sul·tan (sŭl'tən)  |
n.
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| Mideast & N. Africa Encyclopedia: Sultan |
Title implying political power; a king or sovereign, especially of a Muslim state.
The title of sultan came to prominence around 1000 C.E., after the political position of the caliphate (office of the leader of Islam) had eroded around the time of the establishment of the Seljuk sultanate. Turko - Iranian dynasts used the title as an equivalent of the Eurasian steppe title khan. Later, it was used generally in Islamic lands by many states large and small. In some cases, for example, in Persia (now Iran), from 1500 on, the term was further devalued to denote a governor, not even a petty ruler.
In the Ottoman Empire, sultan, along with padishah and khan, was one of the titles of the sovereign (for example, Sultan Süleyman Khan), as well as the other members of the ruling family. The ruler's sons and grandsons, who served as governors and thus shared political power in the steppe manner, were all styled sultan. In the case of the female members of the ruling house, the title followed the personal name of the main designation - for example, Hürrem Sultan, valide sultan (dowager queen), khasseki sultan (favorite consort), or Mihrimah Sultan, who was a princess. The sultanate of the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1922, just before the Republic of Turkey was founded.
— I. METIN KUNT
| History 1450-1789: Sultan |
Sultan, which originally meant 'power' or 'authority', evolved by the tenth century to its present meaning of the holder of that authority, such as a ruler, lord, or monarch. The most spectacular sultans of history were those of the Ottoman dynasty, who ruled most of the territory of the Middle East and North Africa, as well as large parts of eastern Europe, from 1300 to 1923.
Origins of the term are somewhat obscure. Probably Akkadian, and Syriac, the word appears in Arabic in the Koran with the meaning of empowering of someone over another, and connoting magical or moral authority such as possessed by prophets, or by Satan. In early Islamic societies, "sultan" came to convey political power, and was often applied to lesser rulers who shared power with the caliphs, who were presumed to be the religious head of the community, and, at least until around 1000 C.E., to be descended from the Prophet Muhammad. The hadith, or stories of the prophet, generally employ the word "sultan" for governmental or political power, but occasionally for the power of God. As governance became more complicated in early Islamic societies, and disputes emerged about the rightful leaders of the Muslim community, the term became an honorific, or personal title, most consistently, although not exclusively, applied to rulers of Turkic or Persian stock, and Central Asian origins. Ibn Khaldun, writing just as the Turkic dynasties began to populate and usurp power in much of the Arab and Persian lands, noted with disdain their appropriation of honorifics such as "sultan." Such was also true, by his account and others, of the Barmakids, an extremely powerful Persian family under the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809). Most contemporary sources point to Mahmud of Ghazna (998–1030) as the first independent sovereign to be called a sultan by the Abbasid caliphs. Whether or not the caliph conferred the title, it appears certain that after the fall of the Abbasid dynasty in 1258, "sultan" had acquired the meaning of independent sovereign. Thus the Mamluks, a slave elite of Turkish, Circassian, and Georgian origins, who ruled Egypt from 1250–1517, were so labeled. All such independent dynasties were champions of Sunni Islam, and it is no coincidence that a revitalized Muslim orthodoxy emerged in the eastern Mediterranean in response to the threat, first of all, of the sectarian Shi&NA;ites, but also of the crusaders, whose ventures in the Levant began in 1096. Sunnism was reinvigorated by the Seljuk kingdoms of Turkey and Iraq, between 1051 and 1300. Muslim theorists had by that time evolved a philosophy of rule that designated the Mamluks and their rivals, including the Ottomans, as sultans, the "Shadows of God on Earth," or the "Caliphs of God on Earth," in matters of government.
Ottoman Sultanate, 1453–1566
The Seljuks—after 1071 there were two centers of overlapping power, one in Baghdad, and the other in Konya and Alanya—created a courtly style and manner of governance that was Central Asian and Muslim in flavor but influenced by the Byzantines, and was adopted by the later Ottoman Empire. Of the Ottoman sultans prior to 1453, Bayezid II (1481–1512) is said to have requested the title of sultan from the titular caliph in Cairo. Mehmed II (also known as Fatih, 'conqueror', of Istanbul, 1451–1481), adopted the title sultan as his own. Nonetheless the preferred term continued to be padishah, Persian for supreme sovereign, and sultan generally topped an increasingly long list of titles in official documents.
By the time of the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566, the Ottomans had conquered Egypt and the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, subdued and colonized Hungary, and threatened the walls of Vienna. Ottoman sultans recast their legitimacy in canonical Islamic terms, as promoters and defenders of Islamic law (shari&NA;a), and created an immense religious hierarchy run by the grand mufti (Turk., Şeyhülislâm), as he came to be known in Europe. In Turkish, Suleiman acquired the epithet "Law-Giver" precisely because of his consolidation of the imperial offices and law codes. By the time of the conquest of Baghdad by Murad IV (ruled 1623–1640), the Ottoman sultan styled himself "the most glorious Padishah who is the Defender of the faith, whose Majesty is a great as that of Solomon, who is the substitute of God in the world, and who has justified the maxim that 'An equitable Sultan is the shadow of God on earth' . . . the supporter of Islamism and Musulmans, the exterminator of heresies and of the polytheists, the Sovereign of the two Orients and the two Occidents, the servant of the two Holy Cities, the Treasure of Mankind and the apple of the age, who is protected by the Supreme Being whose divine assistance men implore, and favoured by the most High and propitious God" (quoted in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, 2nd ed, vol. 1, p. 25).
Suleiman's long reign (1520–1566) roughly coincided with that of the Habsburg emperor Charles V (ruled 1519–1556), as well as that of Francis I (ruled 1515–1547), and Henry VIII (ruled 1509–1547), and contemporaries equated the terms sultan and emperor as imperial rivals. In this period, lasting impressions of real Ottoman Turkish (Muslim) power were embedded in the European psyche, as well as imaginative, largely fictive representations of imperial institutions such as the harem. "Sultan" thus came to represent absolute power in its most exoticized version, especially in Paul Rycaut's Present State of the Ottoman Empire (1660).
Suleiman's age became the idealized gold standard for subsequent eras, often referred to as the "classical age" of the empire. In later reigns, the striking change was the withdrawal of the sultan into palace precincts, with weekly highly ritualized journeys to Friday prayers. The "sultanic" presence became iconographic and theatrical, as his deputy, the grand vizier, took his place in public spaces, such as on the battlefield, and as head of the Imperial Council (Divan). While that is characteristic of the seventeenth century, in the eighteenth, another change occurred, with the reassertion of power by sultans such as Ahmed III (1703–1730) and Selim III (1789–1807), both of whom, it should be noted, were removed from their thrones by widespread resistance to their attempts at invigorated leadership and reform. Eighteenth-century Europe, especially France, made of the sultan the worst exemplar of the despotic, in the debates on the excesses of the Bourbon monarchy. Creative productions such as Mozart's Abduction from the Seraglio, or Montesquieu's Persian Letters, cemented the image and continue to exert their influence even in contemporary histories of the empire.
Bibliography
Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300–1600. London, 1973.
Kinross, Patrick, Lord. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. London, 1977. Still the best of the histories organized by reigns.
Kramers, J. H. "Sultān." In Encyclopaedia of Islam. CD-Rom edition. Vol. 9, pp. 849–851. Leiden, 1999.
Kunt, Metin, and Christine Woodhead, eds. Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World. London, 1995. A superb collection of studies on Suleiman's era.
Spandounes, Theodore. On the Origin of the Ottoman Emperors. Translated and edited by Donald M. Nicol. New York, 1997. From a 1538 text.
—VIRGINIA H. AKSAN
| Wikipedia: Sultan |
For other uses, see Sultan (disambiguation).
Sultan (Arabic: سلطان Sulṭān) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", or "rulership", derived from the masdar سلطة sulṭah, meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty in practical terms (i.e., the lack of dependence on any higher ruler), without claiming the overall Caliphate, or it was used to refer to a powerful governor of a province within the caliphate. It then developed some further meanings in certain contexts.
The dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are called a sultanate (Arabic: سلطنة).
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Muslim ruler under the terms of shariah (king/Prince)
The title carries moral weight and religious authority, as the ruler's role was defined in the Qur'an. The sultan however is not a religious teacher himself, and in constitutional monarchies, the sultanship can be reduced to a more limited role.
The very first to carry the title of "sultan" was the Turkmen chief Mahmud of Ghazni (ruled 998 - 1030 CE). Later, "sultan" became the usual title of rulers of Seljuk and Ottoman Turks and Ayyubid and Mamluk rulers in Egypt. In the later stages "sultan" was used mostly for the wives of the emperor. The religious validation of the title was illustrated by the fact that the shadow Caliph in Cairo bestowed the title "Sultan" on Murad I, the third ruler of the emerging Ottoman Empire in 1383; its earlier sovereigns had been beys or emirs, a lower rank in the orders of protocol.
At later stages, lesser rulers assumed the title "sultan", as was the case for the earlier leaders of today's royal family of Morocco. Today, only the Sultan of Oman, the Sultan of Brunei (both sovereign nations), the Sultans of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu (within the constitutive states of the federation) in Malaysia, and the titular sultans of Sulu , Maguindanao , and Lanao Provinces in the southern Philippines and Java (Indonesia) regions still use the title. The sultan's domain is properly called a sultanate.
A feminine form, used by Westerners, is sultana or sultanah; the very styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans. In a similar usage, the wife of a German Field-Marshal might be styled Feldmarschallin (in French, similar constructions of the type madame la maréchalle are quite common). The rare female leaders in Muslim history are correctly known as "sultanas". In the Sultanate of Sulu, the wife of the Sultan is styled as the "Panguian", not "sultana".
Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law, the term is gradually being replaced by 'king' (i.e., Malik in Arabic).
Compound ruler titles
These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message; e.g.:
- Mani Sultan = Manney Sultan, meaning 'the Pearl of Rulers', or less poetically Honoured Monarch, was a subsidiary title, part of the full style of the Maharaja of Travancore
- Sultan of Sultans is the 'sultanic equivalent' of King of Kings
- Certain secondary titles have a devout Islamic connotation, e.g., Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad bis saif (holy war to establish Islamic rule)
- Sultanic Highness was a rare, hybrid western-Islamic honorific style, exclusively used by the son, daughter-in-law and daughters of Sultan Husain Kamil of Egypt (a British protectorate since 1914), who bore it with their primary titles of Prince (Arabic Amir, Turkish Prens) or Princess, after 11 October 1917. They enjoyed these for life, even after the Royal Rescript regulating the styles and titles of the Royal House after the Egyptian Independence in 1922, when the sons and daughters of the newly styled King (Arabic Misr al-Malik, considered a promotion) were granted the title Sahib(at) us-Sumuw al-Malik, or Royal Highness).
Former Sultans and Sultanates
Near East and Central Asia
- Ghaznavid Sultanate
- Sultans of Great Seljuk
- Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
- Sultans (becoming Padishahs) of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli
Arab World
- in Algeria: sultanate of Tuggurt
- in Egypt and Syria:
- in present-day Yemen, various small sultanates of the former British Aden Protectorate and South Arabia:
-
- Audhali, Fadhli, Haushabi, Kathiri, Lahej, Lower Aulaqi, Lower Yafa, Mahra, Qu'aiti, Subeihi, Upper Aulaqi, Upper Yafa and the Wahidi sultanates
- in present-day Saudi Arabia :
- Oman – Sultan of Oman (authentically referred to as Hami), on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1784, two years before the imamate lost temporal power in 1786 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861)
- Sultanate of Zanzibar two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika part of Tanzania)
- in Morocco, till Mohammed V changed the style to Malik (king) on 14 August 1957, maintaining the subsidiary style Amir al-Mu´minin (Commander of the Faithful)
- in Sudan:
- Darfur
- Dar al-Masalit
- Dar Qimr
- Funj Sultanate of Sinnar (Sennar)
- Kordofan
- in Chad:
- Bag(u)irmi (main native title: Mbang)
- Wada'i (main native title: Kolak), successor state to Birgu
- Dar Sila (actually a wandering group of tribes)
Horn of Africa
- Adal Sultanate, in northwestern Somalia, southern Djibouti, and the Somali, Oromia, and Afar regions of Ethiopia
- Ajuuraan State, in Somalia
- the Afar -, Awsa - or Aussa Sultanate, in northeastern Ethiopia
- Gobroon Dynasty, in Somalia
- Harar Sultanate, in eastern Ethiopia
- Ifat Sultanate, in eastern Ethiopia
- Majeerteen Sultanates, in northern Somalia
- Marehan Sultanate, in northern Somalia
- Shewa Sultanate, in central Ethiopia
- Warsangali Sultanates, in northern Somalia
East Africa and Indian Ocean
Sultan
- Angoche Sultanate, on the Mozambiquan coast (also several neighbouring sheikdoms)
- various Sultans on the Comoros; however on the Comoros, the normally used styles were alternative native titles, including Mfalme, Phany or Jambé and the 'hegemonic' title Sultani tibe
- the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on Mayotte (separated from the Comoros)
Maliki
This was the alternative native style (apparently derived from malik, the Arabic word for king) of the Sultans of the Kilwa Sultanate, in Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania).
Swahili sultan
Mfalume is the (Ki)Swahili title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan:
- in Kenya:
- Pate on part of Pate island (capital also named Pate), in the Lamu Archipelago
- Witu, came under German, then British protectorate
- in Tanganyika (presently part of Tanzania): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled Jembe
Sultani
This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe
West and Central Africa
- in Cameroon:
- Bamoun (Bamun, 17th cent. founded uniting 17 chieftancies) 1918 becomes a Sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftancies.
- Bibemi 1770 founded- Rulers first style Lamido to ...., then Sultan
- Mandara Sultanate since 1715 (replacing Wandala kingdom); 1902 Part of Cameroon
- Rey Bouba Sultanate founded 1804
- in the Central African Republic:
- Bangassou created ca.1878; 14 June 1890 under Congo Free State protectorate, 1894 under French protectorate; 1917 Sultanate suppressed by the French.
- Dar al-Kuti - French protectorate since December 12, 1897
- Rafai ca.1875 Sultanate, 8 April 8, 1892 under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31 1909 under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed
- Zemio ca.1872 established; December 11 1894 under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12 1909 under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed
- in Niger: Arabic alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers:
- the Amenokal of the Aïr confederation of Tuareg
- the Sarkin Damagaram since the 1731 founding of the Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder)
- in Nigeria most monarchies previously had native titles but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were generally adopted such as Emir- Sultan has been used
- in Borno (alongside the native title Mai)
- since 1817 in Sokoto, the suzerain (also styled Amir al-Mu´minin and Sarkin Musulmi) of all Fulbe jihad states and premier traditional Muslim leader in the Sahel (according to some once a Caliph)
Southern Asia
In India:
- Bahmani Sultanate
- Sultanate of Bengal
- the Deccan sultanates: Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar
- Sultanate of Delhi several dynasties, the last (Mughal) became imperial Padshah-i Hind
- Sultanate of Gujarat
- Sultanate of Jaunpur
- Sultanate of Kandesh
- Sultanate of Malwa
In the Maldives:
Southeast and East Asia
In Brunei:
- Sultan of Brunei, Brunei (on Borneo island)
In China:
- Dali, Yunnan, capital of the short-lived Panthay Rebellion
Furthermore, the Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan
In Indonesia (formerly in the Dutch East Indies):
- On Borneo
- Sultanate of Banjar
- Sultanate of Berau
- Sultanate of Bulungan
- Sultanate of Gunung Tabur
- Sultanate of Kubu
- Sultanate of Kutai Kartanegara
- Sultanate of Mempawah
- Sultanate of Paser
- Sultanate of Pontianak
- Sultanate of Sambaliung
- Sultanate of Sambas
- On Celebes Island
- Sultanate of Buton
- Sultanate of Bone
- Sultanate of Gowa
- Sultanate of Luwu
- Sultanate of Soppeng
- Sultanate of Wajo
- On Java Island
- Sultanate of Banten
- Sultanate of Cirebon- the rulers in three of the four palaces (kraton) from which fractioned Cirebon was ruled: Kraton Kasepuhan, Kraton Kanoman and Kraton Kacirebonan (only in Kraton Kaprabonan the rulers title was Panembahan)
- Sultanate of Demak
- Sultanate of Pajang
- Sumedang Larang Kingdom
- Sultanate of Mataram
- Sultanate of Yogyakarta
- Sultanate of Kasunanan
- In the Moluccas Archipelago
- Sultanate of Jilolo
- Kerajaan Tanah Hitu
- Sultanate of Bacan
- Sultanate of Ternate
- Sultanate of Tidore
- In the Nusa Tenggara
- Sultanate of Bima on Sumbawa island
- In the Riau archipelago: sultanate of Lingga-Riau by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of Johore (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud
- In Sumatra
- Sultanate of Aceh (full style Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam) , which had many vassal states
- Sultanate of Asahan
- Awak Sungai, established 17th century at the split in four of Minangkabau, in 1816 extinguished by Netherlands East Indies colonial government
- Sultanate of Deli since 1814, earlier Aceh's vassal as Aru
- Sultanate of Indragiri
- Sultanate of Langkat since 1817 (previous style Rajah)
- Sultanate of Palembang (Darussalam), also holding the higher title of Susuhunan
- Sultanate of Pagaruyung
- Sultanate of Pelalawan
- Sultanate of Perlak
- Sultanate of Riau-Lingga
- Sultanate of Samudera Pasai
- Sultanate of Serdang
- Sultanate of Siak Sri Inderapura
- In the Malay Peninsula:
- In Peninsular Malaysia (or Malaya), where all nine of Malaysia's present sultanates are located:
- Sultanate of Malacca
- Sultanate of Johor
- Sultanate of Kedah
- Sultanate of Kelantan
- Sultanate of Pahang
- Sultanate of Perak
- Sultanate of Selangor
- Sultanate of Terengganu
- Furthermore, the ruler of Luak Jelebu, one of the constitutive states of the Negeri Sembilan confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title Undang Luak Jelebu.
- In Thailand (Siam):
- In Peninsular Malaysia (or Malaya), where all nine of Malaysia's present sultanates are located:
- In the Philippines:
- Sultanate of Buayan
- Sultanate of Maguindanao
- Sultanate of Sulu (Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of -now Malaysian- Sabah on North Borneo)
- Sultanate of Ranaw (Sultan ko Pat a Pangampong a Ranao)
Contemporary sovereign sultanates
- Brunei
- Indonesia – Sultan of Yogyakarta Special Region is governor of that province
- Malaysia
- Sultan is the title of seven (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu) of the nine rulers of the Malay states. The federal head of state the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, is elected (de facto rotated) for five years by and among the hereditary state rulers, but is usually styled "king" in foreign countries; political power, however, lies with the prime minister. See also: Malay titles
- Oman, an Arabian nation, formerly sultanate of Muscat and Oman
Princely and aristocratic titles
In the Ottoman dynastic system, male descendants of the ruling Padishah (in the West also known as Great Sultan), enjoyed a style including Sultan, so this normally Monarchic title is used equivalent to a western prince of the blood: Daulatlu Najabatlu Shahzada Sultan (given name) Hazretleri Effendi; for the Heir Apparent however, the style was Daulatlu Najabatlu Vali Ahad-i-Sultanat' (given name) Effendi Hazlatlari, i.e. Crown Prince of the sultanate.
- The sons of Imperial Princesses, excluded from the Ottoman imperial succession, were only styled Sultanzada (given name) Bey-Effendi, i.e. Son of a Prince[ss] of the dynasty.
In certain Muslim states, Sultan was also an aristocratic title, as in the Tartar Astrakhan Khanate
The Sultan Valide was the title reserved for the mother of the ruling sultan.
Military rank
In a number of post-caliphal states under Mongol or Turkic rule, there was a feudal type of military hierarchy, often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles (Khan, Malik, Amir) as mere rank denominations.
In the Persian empire, the rank of Sultan was roughly equivalent to a western Captain, socially in the fifth rank class, styled 'Ali Jah
See also
Other Ruling titles
Sources and references
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| Translations: Sultan |
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - σουλτάνος
Português (Portuguese)
n. - sultão (m)
Русский (Russian)
султан, султанка (порода кур)
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
回教君主, 土耳其皇帝, 苏丹
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 回教君主, 土耳其皇帝, 蘇丹
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - スルタン, サルタン, トルコ皇帝
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) سلطان
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - סולטן (שליט מוסלמי), תרנגול-הודו לבן
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