Sunni

1. The branch of Islam that accepts the first four caliphs as rightful successors of Muhammad.
2. pl., Sunni, or -nis. A Muslim belonging to this branch; a Sunnite.

[Arabic sunnī, adherent of the Sunna, from sunna, customary practice, tradition. See Sunna.]

Sunni, or Sunnite, refers to those Muslims in the majority trend in Islam. Sunnism and Shi'ism split on the question of succession and the appropriate method of choosing a leader. The Sunni accepted the legitimacy of the first four Caliphs (successors to the Prophet). They would then accept as leader anyone from Muhammad's tribe, according to the consensus of the Umma or by the ahl as-shura as representatives of the Umma. Later, in effect, whoever became the leader by whatever route was acceptable to the Sunni. In the Shi'i tradition, Ali was seen as the successor to Muhammad.

The core beliefs of Muslims are based on the Qur'an and sunna of the Prophet Muhammad and centrally concern God, Muhammad, and the Umma. By the eleventh century, five hundred years after the Hijra (622, the flight of the Prophet and his followers from Mecca to Medina), a consensus on these beliefs emerged. Beyond these core beliefs, within Sunni Islam, is a diversity of interpretations and perspectives. While indicating what is meant by this diversity, it should be remembered that Islam is strictly monotheistic. The Qur'an is clear about God and his Oneness. As to the question about the relationship between God and man, the Qur'an is ambiguous. Exploring the oneness of God and His relationship with man, the Sunni focus on the ‘immanence of God’ or the ‘transcendence of God’. One response to the ambiguity is the Sufi (mystic) tradition which expresses a yearning for personal communion with, and love for, God. In contrast, the answer to this and less crucial questions which the Qur'an did not answer was found in hadith which were used to elaborate the silent or ambiguous areas of the Qur'an. In this way, the sunna of the Prophet became a source of law. A legalistic response resulted from the search for answers or enlightenment from the sacred sources which produced a diversity of schools of law or more precisely, methods, doctrines, and schools of thought (madhhab (madhahib, pl.)) Madhahib were networks of colleagues, masters, and disciples around the doctrines of a great Imam. These doctrines evolved through a constant interplay with politics. Eventually, these madhahib were reduced to the four that were equally accepted by all Sunnis. These madhahib elaborated and interpreted Islamic Law—the Shari'a.

The Hanafi madhhab uses reason and analogy based firmly on orthodoxy. It allows the use of subjective opinion and customary law, which made it more flexible and was also accommodating to secular needs (the Hanafi madhhab was officially recognized by Ottoman and Moghul Empires and other major states). The Maliki madhhab, which rejected rational interpretation of the Qur'an though it allows reasoning by analogy as long as the public good is not injured, is dominant in much of Africa. The Shafi'i madhhab indicates a methodology (usul al-fiqh or roots of jurisprudence) whereby ijtihad (independent reasoning applied to legal interpretation of the sacred sources) can be safely utilized. It also recognized the validity of analogy via this methodology. This methodology influenced the other madhahib found in Africa, along the Arabian coastline, southern India, Indonesia. The Hanbali madhhab adheres to strict observance of the terms of the Qur'an and sunna with limited scope for ijtihad or analogy, and to this madhhab belong, Muhammad b. Abd al-Wahhab (1703-92), and through emphasis on the work of an earlier Hanbali, Ibn Taymiyya (1328d). Al-Wahhab focused on a recommitment to the Qur'an, Prophet and His Companions, and a strong commitment to anti-saint worship and anti-Sufism. Wahhabism became predominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. However, in Saudi Arabia, the other madhahib can be utilized where the Hanbali madhhab is silent.

Thus within Sunni Islam, there is a set of central core beliefs from which radiates a very diverse set of contrasting responses and institutions. (See also Shi'i, Islamic politics, Islamic fundamentalism, fatwa.)

— Barbara Allen Roberson

The largest branch in Islam, sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam"; its full name is ahl al-Sunna wa aljamaʿa (the people of Sunna and consensus), and it represents about 90 percent of the world Muslim population.

The Sunni movement can be identified in terms of its differences with the second largest division of Islam, the Shiʿite, with whom it shares the fundamental creed of Islam. After the death of the Prophet, the political issue of how leadership was to be chosen split the new community. The Shiʿa of Ali (literally, the party of Ali) insisted that the Prophet had intended for his cousin Ali to succeed him, while the majority of Muslims maintained that the caliph should be elected and did not have to belong to the Prophet's family. The Sunnis maintained that since the Prophet had not clearly designated a successor, his Sunna (example, custom), by which they were to abide (hence their name), mandated elections. Of course, the Shiʿa also consider the Sunna of the Prophet as binding and second only to the Qurʾan in authority, but they differ on the actual content of the Sunna in regard to the matter of the divinely appointed leaders from the Prophet's family (imams), who in their view are the legitimate rulers. In addition to the concept of divinely appointed leadership, the Sunnis also reject the notion of a mahdi (messiah) as an integral part of the creed, and they emphasize exoteric interpretation of the Qurʾan over the esoteric approach followed by the Shiʿa.

The Sunni Schools of Law

In addition to the Qurʾan and the Sunna as primary sources of Islamic law, Sunni jurists also admit ijma (consensus) and qiyas (personal parallel reasoning) as legitimate sources for legal judgment. Qiyas, the fourth source of law, is a form of ijtihad (exercising personal judgment in legal interpretation). All schools of law generally admit ijtihad, but with different definitions and restrictions. At first, raʾy (personal opinion issued without justification) was exercised, but its unrestricted use was deemed too arbitrary and it was eliminated in favor of qiyas, a form of reasoning that identifies an illah (ratio legis) parallel or similar to another already established by the Qurʾan or the Sunna.

Ijma, or consensus, constitutes the third source of law and it takes precedence over qiyas. There was disagreement among the Sunni schools of law as to the nature of consensus. While all jurists accept the consensus of the companions of the Prophet, the more liberal schools will also admit of the consensus of the schools of law at any given time. The more conservative schools will only accept a global community consensus, which cannot be easily achieved, so in effect the Sunni schools of law did build the legal system on the basis of juristic consensus. However, the right to dissent (ikhtilaf) was scrupulously maintained by all schools. In contrast, the Shiʿa eschew ijma in favor of the ijtihad of the imam or his representative. That the Sunnis consider the law to be a matter of consensus (whether juristic or communal) is underscored in their name, ahl al-Sunna wa al-jamaʿa.

Over time, the various Sunni schools of law coalesced into four major schools: the Hanafi (founded by Abu Hanifa, d. 767), the Maliki (founded by Malik ibn Anas, d. 795), the Shafiʿi (founded by Shafiʿi, d. 820) and the Hanbali school (founded by ibn Hanbal, d. 855). The most widespread is the Hanafi, which was favored by various Muslim governments, most notably by the Ottomans, since it was not as strict as the other schools in its acceptance and use of less rigorous tools of legal interpretation. The Hanafis can be found throughout the Muslim world, while the Malikis are mostly found in Egypt and North Africa, the Shafiʿis in Southeast Asia, and the Hanbalis in the Arabian Peninsula.

Historical and Modern Developments

Tensions between Sunnis and Shiʿa (especially with the sectarian movements derived from the Shiʿa, such as the Ismaʿilis) were very high in early Muslim history as Shiʿite groups tried to destabilize the Sunni caliphate and ensure leadership to the followers of the imams. The problems subsided after the decisive victory of the Ayyubids over the Shiʿite regimes of Egypt and the Near East in the late twelfth century and the subsequent coming to power of the Ottoman Turks, who had always been staunch Sunnis. Tension still exists between local Sunni and Shiʿite groups, although most of it is due more to ethnic and tribal strife than to religious divisions, as can be seen in Lebanon and Pakistan. However, the rise among the Sunnis of strict reform movements (such as the Wahhabi movement), which came to oppose any deviation from their interpretation of the Islamic creed, has exacerbated existing tensions with the Shiʿa in the Persian Gulf area and wherever Wahhabism has spread.

The theological and juristic views on which the four major Sunni schools agree are considered to form the core of orthodox Islam. Although some of these views have coalesced into dogma, others have been subject to changes of interpretation through the years. Specifically, the eventual reliance by Sunni jurists on taqlid (imitation or continuation of established past consensus) led to a reification of thought and law that gave rise to reform movements in the eighteenth century. Taking a stand against past consensus and building on the thought of the Hanbali ibn Taymiyya, the reform movements (the Wahhabis of Arabia, the Sanusis of North Africa, and the followers of Sirhindi in India), rejected ijma and emphasized ijtihad, considering themselves ghayr muqallidin (against imitation) and underscoring the need for new thought in Islamic law. Today, however, and after most Muslim countries have adopted the secular constitutions imposed on them by colonial powers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the major concern of the various contemporary Sunni Muslim movements is how to restore Islamic law and make it compatible with the demands of modern life.

Bibliography

Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Cambridge, U.K.: Islamic Texts Society, 1991.

Makdisi, George. Religion, Law, and Learning in Classical Islam. Aldershot, U.K.; Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1991.

Rahman, Fazlur. Islam, 2d edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.

— TAYEB EL-HIBRI
UPDATED BY MAYSAM J. AL FARUQI

This entry is a subtopic of Islam.

"Islam" comes from the Arabic word meaning 'peace' and 'submission'. For Muslims around the world it is a way of life requiring absolute submission to the will of God. Islam dates from 622 C.E. and is based on the prophetic revelations of Muhammad. From its Middle Eastern roots Islam has spread around the world and, with over a billion followers, is the second largest of the world's religions, after Christianity. About 15 percent of Muslims live in the Arab world and another 25 percent in Africa. Substantial parts of Asia are predominantly Muslim, with Indonesia having the largest Muslim community. There are also significant Muslim populations in Europe and the Americas. The three main Islamic sects are the Sunni, who comprise about 90 percent of all Muslims, Shiʿites, and Sufis. In addition, there are numerous small sects and subsects, such as Ahmaddis, ʿAlawites, and Wahhabis, that differ in degrees of orthodoxy and practice.

Although they accept the divine status of the Jewish and Christian revelations, Muslims believe that Muhammad was the "Seal of the Prophets," the last of God's messengers. The word of God as revealed to Muhammad is recorded in the Holy Qurʾan, the infallible guide to Muslim conduct. Further guidance is provided by the sunna, the authoritative example of the Prophet, whose words and deeds are recorded in the hadith (literally 'tiding' or 'information'; more broadly 'every word, deed, and approval attributed to Muhammad'). "Sunni," derived from "sunna," describes allegiance to the ways of the Prophet. Within the Sunni tradition there are four schools of jurisprudence (Hanifis, Malikis, Shafis, Hanbalis) that differ in their interpretations and applications of religious law, including some minor issues related to food.

Role of Food in Religious Tradition

Prior to the advent of Muhammad, food practices among the Arab peoples of the Middle East were diverse. The establishment of common Islamic food laws united these diverse groups, at the same time differentiating the new religion from Judaism. In several places in the Qurʾan, Muhammad refers to the restrictive food laws of the Jews as a burden imposed on them for sins, noting that there were few food restrictions prior to the revelation of the Torah (4:160; 6:146). While he retained certain elements of Jewish food law, such as the prohibition on pork, Muhammad proclaimed food as a general beneficence, a gift from God to be enjoyed by His people without undue burden. "O ye who believe! Eat of the good things that We have provided you, and be grateful to Allah if it is Him ye worship" (2:172).

Islamic laws regarding food are found particularly in three Qurʾanic suras (chapters), The Cow (2), The Table (5), and Cattle (6), respectively. In addition, the sayings and actions of Muhammad, as recorded in the hadith, provide detailed guidance to acceptable food practices. Food is classified as lawful (halal) or unlawful (haram). Between these is the category of doubtful or suspect (mashbooh). Halal signifies food that is acceptable in the sight of God; it includes all food that is not classified as haram or mashbooh: milk from cows, sheep, camels, and goats, honey, fish, vegetables, fruit, legumes, nuts, and grains. Most animals are halal: "Lawful unto you (for food) are all four-footed animals, with the exceptions named" (5:1). However, to be halal, meat must come from animals slaughtered ritually in a way (similar to Jewish practice) intended to spare them unnecessary suffering. The words "Bismillah. Allah Akbar" ("I begin with God's name: God is great") are pronounced over the animal as its throat is slit, allowing the blood to drain. In fact, kosher food is generally acceptable to Sunni Muslims: "The food of the People of the Book is lawful for you, and yours is lawful unto them" (5.5). Also, similar to kosher practice, in the marketplace meats and other products are certified halal by authoritative Islamic agencies and are stamped with a halal seal.

The opposite of halal is haram food—that which is unacceptable. Pork is the preeminent example of a haram food, the only meat specifically forbidden in the Qurʾan. Blood, and that which dies naturally (carrion), as well as food over which any other name than God's has been invoked, are haram (5.3). Also prohibited in the hadith are flesh of the ass, carnivorous animals, such as the tiger, fox, dog, and leopard, which kill prey by using their paws, and birds of prey. Fish must be alive when taken from the sea or river, and only fish that have fins and scales are allowed, which excludes shellfish and eels. Shrimp are generally considered halal; however there is some disagreement over this within the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. Land animals without ears, such as frogs and snakes, are prohibited. Foods contaminated by haram substances themselves become haram. Alcohol is haram, along with other mind-altering substances. However, there are several references to wine in the Qurʾan that illustrate changing attitudes toward alcohol: wine is acknowledged to have some benefit, but which is outweighed by harm (2:219); believers are exhorted not to pray while under the influence of intoxicants (4:43); and it is expressly prohibited as "an abomination of Satan's handiwork" (5:90). The latter, together with guidance found in the hadith, forms the basis for most modern interpretations, which view alcohol as both morally and socially unacceptable. Other intoxicants that cloud the mind are also forbidden, though this is a gray area. For example, the chewing of qat ("khat," Catha edulis), a plant whose leaves contain a mild stimulant, is common in Yemen. Coffee consumption has also been controversial at times, though sixteenth-century attempts to ban it proved impossible to enforce. While coffee is a symbol of hospitality in some Arab countries, it may be avoided by devout Muslims. It is worth noting though that some Muslims, notably Sufis, interpret the Qurʾanic verses in other ways and do not prohibit wine. Wine drinking is also acceptable to 'Alawites, especially in a sacramental context.

If a person is uncertain whether a food is halal or haram, then it is mashbooh—doubtful or suspect—and should be avoided. Ingredients such as emulsifiers, gelatin, and enzymes used in processed foods fall into this category as the animal origin of the constituents may be unknown. Some food manufacturers and Islamic authorities produce lists of foods and ingredients classified as halal or haram as a guide to food choice.

There are regional, social, familial, and individual variations in the strictness with which food laws are adhered to. Some Chinese Muslims, for example, openly consume pork. Concern for one's health or obligations stemming from hospitality are reasons for transgressing normative food behaviors. "But if one is forced by necessity [to eat forbidden foods], without wilful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits—then is he guiltless. For Allah is Oft-forgiving Most Merciful" (2:173).

Fasting and Feasting

Fasting (sawm) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and, as such, is an important religious duty. Muslim fasts require complete abstention from food and drink between the hours of sunrise and sunset. Fasting at different times of year may be obligatory (wajib), recommended (mustahab), discouraged (makruh), or forbidden (muharam). The main obligatory fast of the Muslim calendar is that of Ramadan, which lasts for the entire month. Also obligatory is fasting for kaffarah—atonement for infractions of the Ramadan fast—and fasts made in fulfillment of vows. Fasting is considered mustahab on all days of the year on which it has not been prohibited. It is specifically stressed for the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth of each month in imitation of the Prophet, and on Mondays and Thursdays. Ashura is a one-day fast held on the tenth day of Muhurram, instituted by Muhammad in imitation of the Jewish holiday Pesach (Passover), which marks the delivery of the children of Israel from the Pharoah. Although Ashura was replaced in the second year of Muhammad's dispensation by Ramadan, it remains as an optional fast.

It is makruh to single out Fridays and Saturdays (the Muslim and Jewish Sabbaths) for fasting or to fast on the day preceding Ramadan or on Naw Rouz. Fasting is muharam on the days of the ʿId al-Fitr and ʿId al-Adha festivals. To be valid, fasting must be undertaken with correct spiritual intent (niyyah), which should be renewed each day. Fasting is incumbent on all sane adult Muslims, with exemptions made for pregnant, nursing, and menstruating women, for travelers, and for those in ill health. The exceptions are seen as evidence of the statement that Allah does not want to place an undue burden on His people (2:185). Deliberate infractions of the Ramadan fast are subject to either kaffarah (atonement) or qada (restitution), though unintentional lapses are not punished. Some differences exist between schools of jurisprudence as to the detailed practices and penalties associated with fasting. For example, Sunnis may break the fast if they suffer acute hunger; Shiʿites may not unless there is risk of illness.

Certain foods have a particular symbolic value because they recall the practices of Muhammad. Thus, fasts are traditionally broken with dates and water, followed by lentil soup and often a salad before the main course, which is more a matter of local custom.

Holidays and Festivals

During the Ramadan fast Muslims may consume more food than at other times of the year, for Ramadan is an essentially joyous occasion, a time for giving thanks to God. Feasting in the evening is common, and special foods are commonly prepared at family and community meals. Ramadan food specialities vary across Islamic cultures, for example, Syrian shakreeyeh (lamb in minty yogurt sauce), Turkish kaahk Ramazan (sourdough crescent rolls), and Moroccan harira (lamb and lentil stew).

At the close of Ramadan comes the three-day festival of ʿId al-Fitr, commonly known as "Sweet Id." The celebration is a way of thanking Allah for providing Muslims with the strength to have fasted successfully, and it is marked with feasting and gift-giving. It is characterized by the serving of sweet dishes, such as sawaiyan, a fine vermicelli boiled with milk and sugar. In Malaysia, ketupat, rice cooked in coconut leaves, and rendang, a spicy beef dish, are prepared especially for this occasion. ʿId al-Adha, the feast of sacrifice, occurs at the end of the pilgrimage to Mecca. It was previously a four-day festival, now much diminished, in which all adult male Muslims sacrificed a lamb, goat, or cow. Islamic prescriptions require that the sacrificial meat be divided into three equal portions: one for the family, one for friends, relatives, and neighbors, and one for charity. This is in remembrance of God's mercy in allowing Abraham to sacrifice a ram instead of his son, Ishmael. Ashura is a joyous occasion for Sunnis, though it is a solemn historical remembrance for Shiʿites.

Bibliography

All citations from the Qurʿan are taken from:

ʿAli, ʿAbdullah Yusuf. The Meaning of the Holy Qurʾan. 9th ed.

Beltsville, Md.: Amana, 1998.

Abbas, Ali, ed. A Shiʿite Encyclopedia. Available on-line at: http://www.al-Islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter7/3.html

Hussaini, Mohammed M. Islamic Dietary Concepts and Practice.

Chicago: Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America, 1993.

Welch, Andrew T. "Islam." In A New Handbook of Living Religions, edited by John R. Hinnells, pp. 162–235. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997.

—Paul Fieldhouse

The majority of Muslims, who are viewed as connected to the authoritative Sunna(h) and believe that any good Muslim can be leader; they prefer to reach agreements by means of consensus and do not recognize special sacred wisdom in their leaders as Shiites do. Orthodox Sunni Islam basically believes that the Qur'an is the final authority and there is no further revelation. Shi'a Islam believes that Mohammad appointed his son-in-law, 'Ali, to take his place, and therefore, the rightful imam has both the divine inspiration and authority of Allah to add to the message of the Qur'an. Thus Shi'a Islam is seen as the more radical of the two main branches, and throughout the centuries many have claimed to be the next imam, attempting to rally Muslims to their particular cause which has unfortunately often been expressed as a Jihad.

Part of a series on Sunni Islam
Beliefs
Monotheism Prophethood & Messengership Holy Books • Angels Judgement Day • Predestination
Pillars
Declaration of Faith • Prayer Charity • Fasting • Pilgrimage
Rightly Guided Caliphs
Abu Bakr • Umar ibn al-Khattab Uthman ibn Affan • Ali ibn Abi Talib
Schools of Law (Shariah)
Hanafi • Shafi`i • Maliki • Hanbali
Schools of Theology
Maturidi • Ash'ari • Athari
Modern Movements
Barelvi • Salafi • Deobandi
Hadith Collections
Sahih Bukhari • Sahih Muslim Al-Sunan al-Sughra Sunan Abu Dawood Sunan al-Tirmidhi Sunan ibn Maja • Al-Muwatta Sunan al-Darami
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Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. It is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (Arabic: أهل السنة والجماعة‎ "people of the example (of Muhammad) and the community") or Ahl as-Sunnah (Arabic: أهل السنة‎) for short. The word Sunni comes from the word Sunnah (Arabic: سنة‎), which means the words and actions^[1] or example of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad.

Contents 1 Sunni schools of law (Madhhab) 2 Sunni theological traditions 3 Sunni view of hadith 4 Demographics 5 See also 6 Notes 7 External links

Sunni schools of law (Madhhab)

Islamic law is known as the Sharī‘ah. The Sharī‘ah is based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The Madhhab translates to "way", and different Madhhaheb (plural of Madhhab) reflect different opinions on some laws and obligations of the sharia, for example when one Madhhab sees a certain act as an obligation, while the other does not. There are four of these schools:

• Hanafi School (founded by Abu Hanifa)

Abu Hfa (d. 767), was the founder of the Hanafi school. He was born circa 702 in Kufa, Iraq.^[2][3] Muslims of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Muslim areas Southern Russia, The Caucasus, parts of The Balkans,Iraq and Turkey follow this school.

• Maliki School (founded by Malik ibn Anas)

Malik ibn Anas(d. 795) developed his ideas in Medina, where he knew some of the last surviving companions of Muhammad or their immediate descendents. His doctrine is recorded in the Muwatta which has been adopted by most Muslims of Africa except in Lower Egypt, Zanzibar and South Africa. The Maliki legal school is the branch of Sunni that dominates most of the Muslim areas of Africa, except Egypt and the Horn of Africa.

• Shafi'i School (founded by Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i)

Al-Shafi‘i (d. 820) was a student of Malik. He taught in Iraq and then in Egypt. Muslims in Indonesia, Lower Egypt, Malaysia, Singapore, Somalia, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Kerala, India, Sri Lanka, Palestine, Yemen and Kurds in the Kurdish regions follow this school. Al-Shafi'i placed great emphasis on the Sunnah of Muhammad, as embodied in the Hadith, as a source of the Shari'ah.

• Hanbali School (founded by Ahmad bin Hanbal)

Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) was born in Baghdad. He learned extensively from al-Shafi'i. Despite persecution, he held to the doctrine that the Qur'an was uncreated. This school of law is followed primarily in the Arabian Peninsula.

The followers of these four schools follow the same basic belief system but differ from one another in terms of practice and execution of rituals, and in juristic interpretation of "divine principals" (or Shariah) as envisaged in Quran and Hadith. However Sunni Muslims consider them all equally valid.

There are other Sunni schools of law. However, many are followed by only small numbers of people and are relatively unknown due to the popularity of the four major schools; also, many have died out or were not sufficiently recorded by their followers to survive.

Interpreting the Shari'ah to derive specific rulings (such as how to pray) is known as fiqh, which literally means understanding. A madhhab is a particular tradition of interpreting fiqh. These schools focus on specific evidence (Shafi'i and Hanbali) or general principles (Hanafi and Maliki) derived from specific evidences. The schools were started by eminent Muslim scholars in the first four centuries of Islam. As these schools represent clearly spelled out methodologies for interpreting the Shari'aa, there has been little change in the methodology per se. However, as the social and economic environment changes, new fiqh rulings are being made. For example, when tobacco appeared it was declared as 'disliked' because of its smell. When medical information showed that smoking was dangerous, that ruling was changed to 'forbidden'.^{[citation needed]} Current fiqh issues include things like downloading pirated software and cloning. The consensus is that the Shari'ah does not change but fiqh rulings change all the time.

A madhhab is not to be confused with a religious sect. There may be scholars representing all four madhhabs living in larger Muslim communities, and it is up to those who consult them to decide which school they prefer.

Many Sunnis advocate that a Muslim should choose a single madhhab and follow it in all matters. However, rulings from another madhhab are considered acceptable as long a preconditions of the actions are within the same school ^[4]. Some Sunnis, however, do not follow any madhhab,. Indeed, some Salafis and Ahle Hadith reject strict adherence, while often being loosely connected, to one of the four particular schools of thought, preferring to use the Qur'an and the Sunnah as the primary sources of Islamic law or the ruling by any of the jurists if it is in accordance with Quran and Hadith. In fact, such debates about the balance taqleed or ijtihad have been going on a long time in Islam. Generally Hanbalis have favored the opinion to keep the doors of ijtihad open while the other three have preferred taqleed.

Sunni theological traditions

Some Islamic scholars faced questions that they felt were not specifically answered in the Qur'an, especially questions with regard to philosophical conundra like the nature of God, the existence of human free will, or the eternal existence of the Qur'an. Various schools of theology and philosophy developed to answer these questions, each claiming to be true to the Qur'an and the Muslim tradition (sunnah). Among Sunnites, the following were the dominant traditions:

• Ash'ari, founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (873–935). This theology was embraced by Muslim scholars such as al-Ghazali.
  • Ash'ariyyah theology stresses divine revelation over human reason. Ethics, they say, cannot be derived from human reason: God's commands, as revealed in the Qur'an and the practice of Muhammad and his companions (the sunnah, as recorded in the traditions, or hadith), are the source of all morality.
  • Regarding the nature of God and the divine attributes, the Ash'ari rejected the Mu'tazilite position that all Qur'anic references to God as having physical attributes (that is, a body) were metaphorical.^[5] Ash'aris insisted that these attributes were "true", since the Qur'an could not be in error, but that they were not to be understood as implying a crude anthropomorphism.
  • Ash'aris tend to stress divine omnipotence over human free will. They believe that the Qur'an is eternal and uncreated.
• Maturidiyyah, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 944). Maturidiyyah was a minority tradition until it was accepted by the Turkish tribes of Central Asia (previously they had been Ashari and followers of the Shafi school,^{[citation needed]} it was only later on migration into Anatolia that they became Hanafi and followers of the Maturidi creed^{[citation needed]}). One of the tribes, the Seljuk Turks, migrated to Turkey, where later the Ottoman Empire was established.^[6] Their preferred school of law achieved a new prominence throughout their whole empire although it continued to be followed almost exclusively by followers of the Hanafi school while followers of the Shafi, and Maliki schools within the empire followed the Ashari school. Thus, wherever can be found Hanafi followers, there can be found the Maturidi creed.
  • Maturidiyyah argue that knowledge of God's existence can be derived through reason.

• Athari, no precise founder of this school of creed within Islam,but Ahmad ibn Hanbal is often pointed to as an early champion of the Athari creed. This became a serious issue within the Muslim World during the Mu'tazili controversy over the belief of the Qur'an being created, rather than being the speech of Allah. Others are cited as earlier proponents, such as, Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 778) was a Follower from Kufa who held what would later become the Athari creed.
  • The Athari methodology of textual interpretation is to avoid delving into extensive theological speculation. They believe in Allah and his characteristics in the fashion that they were mentioned in the Quran, the Sunnah and by the Sahabah. They do not attempt to further interpret the aforementioned texts by giving a literal meaning like the Ẓāhirīs nor through tahreef (distortion), ta‘weel (figurative interpretation), tamtheel (making a likeness), tashbeeh (resemblance), nor ta’teel (denial). They avoid entering into philosophical and rational discussions of matters relating to Islamic beliefs that are not supported by the Quran, the Sunnah or the understanding of the Sahabah with specific wording; rather, their discussion and presentation of beliefs revolves entirely around textual evidences found in these sources, without taking the path of the literalists either, the Ẓāhirīs. The Atharis believe this to be the methodology adhered to by the first three generations of Muslims (i.e. the Salaf), therefore making it the school of Sunni Aqidah that they believe is the closest to the truth.
  • Due to the emphasis of the Hanbali school of thought on textualism, Muslims who are Hanbali usually prefer the Athari in Aqidah. However atharis are not exclusively Hanbali, many muslims form the other four schools of thought, including Hanafis, adhere to the Athari school of Aqidah also.

Sunni view of hadith

The Qur'an as it exists today was compiled by Muhammad's companions (Sahaba) in approximately 650, and is accepted by all Muslim denominations. However, there were many matters of belief and daily life that were not directly prescribed in the Qur'an, but were actions that were observed by Muhammad and the community. Later generations sought out oral traditions regarding the early history of Islam, and the practice of Muhammad and his first followers, and wrote them down so that they might be preserved. These recorded oral traditions are called hadith. Muslim scholars sifted through the hadith and evaluated the chain of narration of each tradition, scrutinizing the trustworthiness of the narrators and judging the strength of each hadith accordingly.

Most Sunni accept the hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim as the most authentic (sahih, or correct), and grant a lesser status to the collections of other recorders. There are, however, four other collections of hadith that are also held in particular reverence by Sunni Muslims, making a total of six:

• Sahih al-Bukhari
• Sahih Muslim
• Sunan an-Nasa'ii
• Sunan Abu Dawud
• Sunan at-Tirmidhi
• Sunan ibn Majah

There are also other collections of hadith which also contain many authentic hadith and are frequently used by specialists. Examples of these collections include:

• Muwatta of Imam Malik - Considered to be the first authentic Hadith compilation.^{[citation needed]}
• Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal
• Sahih Ibn Khuzaima
• Sahih Ibn Hibban
• Mustadrak of Al Haakim
• Musannaf of Abd al-Razzaq

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Islam

There are many challenges to demographers attempting to calculate the proportion of the world's Muslim population who adhere to Sunni and Shi'a Islam. Using various sources, estimates of the proportion of Muslims adhering to Sunni Islam range anywhere from 85% to 90% worldwide. Sunni denomination, claiming 1.36 billion followers, if one takes Pew Forum's Global Muslim Count. Note that this is much more than Catholicism's 1.13 billion followers.^[7]

See also

• Muhammad
• Sahaba
• Ahl al-Bayt
• Shi'a-Sunni relations

Notes

1. ^ Sunna - Definitions from Dictionary.com
2. ^ Josef W. Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, 1 edition, (Routledge: 2005), p.5
3. ^ Hisham M. Ramadan, Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary, (AltaMira Press: 2006), p.26
4. ^ Objection to Following Another Madhab Answered [1]
5. ^ Bülent Þenay. "Ash'ariyyah Theology, Ashariyyah". BELIEVE Religious Information Source. http://mb-soft.com/believe/txw/ashari.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-01. 
6. ^ "Maturidiyyah". Philtar. http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/sunni/matur.html. Retrieved 2006-04-01. 
7. ^ [2], from politicsdaily.com

External links

• The belief of Ahl as-Sunnat
• University of Southern California, Compendium of Muslim Texts
• Muwatta by Imam Malik

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