Technical drawing, also known as drafting, is the academic discipline of creating standardized technical drawings by architects, interior designers, drafters, design engineers, and related professionals. Standards and conventions for layout, line thickness, text size, symbols, view projections, descriptive geometry, dimensioning, and notation are used to create drawings that are ideally interpreted in only one way.
A person who does drafting is known as a drafter. In some areas this person may be referred to as a drafting technician, draftsperson, or draughtsperson. This person creates technical drawings which are a form of specialized graphic communication. A technical drawing differs from a common drawing by how it is interpreted. A common drawing can hold many purposes and meanings, while a technical drawing is intended to concisely and clearly communicate all needed specifications to transform an idea into physical form.
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History
Drawing to communicate technical ideas may predate the written language. The oldest drawing instruments known, a drawing board inscripted with a temple plan, date from the 3rd millennium BC from the city of Lagash in Babylon. The ancient Greeks infuenced drawing through their work in geometry, and tools such as the compass and triangles used in engineering were then developed.[2]
One of few surviving medieval architectural drawing from the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the 13th century is the Plan of Saint Gall, a architectural drawing of a monastic compound dating from the early 9th century. The Plan depicts an entire Benedictine monastic compound including churches, houses, stables, kitchens, workshops, brewery, infirmary, and even a special house for bloodletting. The Plan was never actually built, and was so named because it was kept at the famous medieval monastery library of the Abbey of St. Gall, where it remains to this day.
The beginning of contemporary technical drawing originates from 15th century renaissance artists like the Italian Architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who in about 1415 demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror. Leonardo da Vinci further developed perspective and technical drawing, using geometric principles from famous Greek mathematicians like Pythagoras of Samos, and Euclid of Alexandria. In the 18th century the mathematician Gaspard Monge developed descriptive geometry, when designing a complicated fortress in a star shape using orthgraphic projection. Early 19th century isometric drawing was introduced by the Englishman William Farish.[2]
Prior to the 18th century there was no need for interchangeable parts, the ability to select components for assembly at random and fit them together within proper tolerances, and accurate drawings were not necessary. Inventors, engineers and builders made each product one at a time, and each product was unique. Many designs used through the 19th century were accomplished by first completing a hand sketch of the object to build. These were them converted into wooden models from which patterns were constructed . This practice followed well into the 20th century by some. One of the first efforts to create a program to standardize drawing and establish a mechanical drawing school came from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia in 1824.[3]
The 18th century architectural practice technical drawing had become the normal medium for design. Architects were among the first design discipline to make use of conventions of plan, elevation and section in design and production control. It was the scale of the projects and number of crafts involved, that called for a separation between design and construction. By the time the Industrial revolution began, these architectural conventions were readily available to engineers.[4]
Since the Industrial Revolution specialized fields of engineering design have developed to meet the needs of industry. Military and civil engineering were the first, from which others developed such as mechanical, electrical, chemical, aerospace industrial engineering, and many others.[5]
Eventually the development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical drawings.[2]
Types of technical drawings
Engineering drawing
Engineering drawing is a type of technical drawing, created within the engineering discipline, and used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items.
Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.
Cutaway drawings
A cutaway drawing is a technical illustration, in which surface elements a three-dimensional model are selectively removed, to make internal features visible, but without sacrificing the outer context entirely.
The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering.[6]
Exploded view drawing
An exploded view drawing is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of assembly of the various parts.[7] It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated an equal distance away from their original locations.
An exploded view drawing can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center is assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside normally get removed first.[8]
Patent drawing
A patent drawing is a technical drawing of an patent invention, that shows the nature of the invention. The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form.
The applicant for a patent will be required by law to furnish a drawing of the invention whenever the nature of the case requires a drawing to understand the invention. This drawing must be filed with the application. This includes practically all inventions except compositions of matter or processes, but a drawing may also be useful in the case of many processes.[7]
The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on which the drawing is made, the type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the standards in detail is that the drawings are printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues, and the drawings must also be such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.[7]
Technical illustrations
Technical illustration is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer.[9]
The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer’s interest and understanding.[10]
Illustrative techniques are often designed in way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter.[9]
Technical sketches
A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. In general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time consuming.
Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams.[11] These sketches, like metaphors, are used by architects as a mean of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summerize their complex patters, hereby enhancing the design process.[11]
Working drawings
A set of working drawings are part of the documentation needed to build architecture[12]. Typically these include civil drawings, architectural drawings, structural drawings, mechanical drawings, electrical drawings, and plumbing drawings.
Basic drafting paper sizes
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Drawing
type "name"Dimensions
(width X height)Drawing
type "name"Dimensions
(width X height)A-size 8.5 by 11.0 inches
22 cm by 28 cmB-size 11.0 by 17.0 inches
28 cm by 43 cmC-size 17.0 by 22.0 inches
43 cm by 56 cmD-size 22.0 by 34.0 inches
56 cm by 86 cmE-size 34.0 by 44.0 inches
86 cm by 112 cmF-size 44.0 by 68.0 inches
112 cm by 173 cmG-size 68.0 by 88.0 inches
224 cm by 173 cmH-size 88.0 by 136 inches
173 cm by 345 cmAs can be seen in the series, the height of the previous drawing
size becomes double the height of the next size in the sequence.
Manual drafting
The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drafting table. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.
"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-square's edge, but more typically the T-square is used as a tool to hold other devices such as set squares or triangles. In this case the drafter places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables (which have by now largely been replaced by CAD workstations) come equipped with a parallel rule that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.
In addition, the drafter uses several tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the: French curve, typically a piece of plastic with complex curves on it. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves.
Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will typically draw from: the USITT standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a drafter to create their own templates.
This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general drafting can be a time consuming process.
A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well.
In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order.
Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect—or even by shop personnel such as a machinist—skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task and are always in demand to some level.
Computer Aided Design
Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of Computer Aided Design systems (CAD). Computer-aided design is the use of computer technology to aid in the design and particularly the drafting of a part or product, including entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing) and symbol-based method of communication whose conventions are particular to a specific technical field.
Drafting can be done in two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D"). Drafting is the integral communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts sub-discipline that underlies all involved technical endeavors. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, these objects have traditionally been represented by three projected views at right angles.
CAD drafters
CAD drafters prepare technical drawings and plans, which are used to build everything from manufactured products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft to structures such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipelines.[13]
In the past, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing by hand. Now, most drafters use Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) systems to prepare drawings. Consequently, some drafters may be referred to as CADD operators.[13]
With CADD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so that they can be viewed, printed, or programmed directly into automated manufacturing systems. CADD systems also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CADD extensively, it is only a tool. Drafters still need knowledge of traditional drafting techniques, in addition to CADD skills. Despite the nearly universal use of CADD systems, manual drafting and sketching are used in certain applications.[13]
See also
- Topic outline of drawing
- Architectural drawing
- Engineering drawing
- ISO 128 Technical drawings -- General principles of presentation
- Plan (drawing)
- Shop drawing
- Technical lettering
- Specification (technical standard)
References
- ^ From Diderot and d'Alembert, Encyclopédie (1751-72).
- ^ a b c Gary R. Bertoline et al. (2002) Technical Graphics Communication. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002. ISBN 0073655988, p.12.
- ^ James Folkestad er al. (2001). Engineering Drawing & Design. Cengage Learning, 2001. ISBN 0766816346. pp 1-2.
- ^ Ken Baynes, Francis Pugh (1981) The Art of the Engineer. James Clarke & Co., 1981. ISBN 0718825063. p.31.
- ^ Gary Robert Bertoline and Eric N. Wiebe (2004). Fundamentals of Graphics Communication. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2004. ISBN 0072973137, p. 15.
- ^ J. Diepstraten, D. Weiskopf & T. Ertl (2003). "Interactive Cutaway Illustrations". in: Eurographics 2003. P. Brunet and D. Fellner (ed). Vol 22 (2003), Nr 3.
- ^ a b c United States Patent and Trademark Office (2005), General Information Concerning Patents § 1.84 Standards for drawings (Revised January 2005). Accessed 13 Feb 2009.
- ^ Michael E. Brumbach, Jeffrey A. Clade (2003). Industrial Maintenance. Cengage Learning, 2003 ISBN 0766826953, p.65
- ^ a b Ivan Viola and Meister E. Gröller (2005). "Smart Visibility in Visualization". In: Computational Aesthetics in Graphics, Visualization and Imaging. L. Neumann et al. (Ed.)
- ^ www.industriegrafik.com website, Last modified: Juni 15, 2002. Accessed 15 feb 2009.
- ^ a b Richard Boland and Fred Collopy (2004). Managing as designing. Stanford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0804746745, p.69.
- ^ Ralph W. Liebing (1999). Architectural working drawings. John Wiley and Sons, 1999. ISBN 0471348767.
- ^ a b c Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Drafters dated: 2007-12-18. accessed: 2008-09-24.
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Further reading
- Peter J. Booker (1963). A History of Engineering Drawing. London: Northgate.
- Franz Maria Feldhaus (1963). The History of Technical Drawing
- Wolfgang Lefèvre ed. (2004). Picturing Machines 1400-1700 : How technical drawings shaped early engineering practice. MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 0262122693
External links
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