Threskiornithidae

(vertebrate zoology) The ibises, a family of long-legged birds in the order Ciconiiformes.

(Threskiornithidae)

Class: Aves

Order: Ciconiiformes

Suborder: Ciconiae

Family: Threskiornithidae

Thumbnail description
Medium-sized wading and terrestrial birds of temperate and tropic regions, with prominent bills (decurved in ibises, broad and flat in spoonbills), long neck and legs, anterior toes, and highly social habits

Size
19–43 in (48–110 cm): 1–5.5 lb (0.5–2.5 kg)

Number of genera, species
13 genera; 32 species

Habitat
Wetlands, forests, grassland, arid or semi-arid areas

Conservation status
Extinct: 1 species; Critical: 4 species: Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 1 species; Near Threatened: 2 species

Distribution
Worldwide distribution in temperate and tropical zones. All continents except Antarctic have representatives of this family

Evolution and systematics

Two groups of Ciconiiformes, both with peculiarly-shaped beaks, make up the family of the ibises (Threskiornithidae). They are related to the storks, with the wood ibises (Mycteria also known as wood storks) forming a slight link with true ibises. With their slender curved beaks, the ibises differ strikingly from the flat-billed spoonbills but are nevertheless closely related. Spoonbill-ibis hybrids have been successfully raised in zoos. Hybridization raises some questions about the usual division of these birds into two subfamilies, but this division is retained here for practical purposes.

The two subfamilies are readily distinguishable by external characteristics: the ibises (Threskiornithinae), with their long, narrow, and markedly down-curved beak, probe for insects, mollusks, crustaceans, and worms in mud and soil; occasionally they also catch larger prey. Wing beats alternate with periods of gliding; when in flocks all birds alternate from one form of flight to the other at more or less the same time. There are 12 genera with 26 species.

The spoonbills (subfamily Plataleinae), with a beak that is flattened and widened at the tip, seize prey in side-to-side movements of the bill. They do not interrupt wing beats by gliding. This subfamily is comprised of one genus and six species.

Physical characteristics

All members of the family Threskiornithidae are medium to large in size. The face and throat are bare of feathers in most species; the medium-length legs are sturdy. The vocal apparatus is only feebly developed; they only utter low sounds or are almost mute, although a few species utter far-reaching calls. Spoonbills can also clatter with the beak. Both sexes are similar in color, the females generally being somewhat smaller than the males. Most plumage is white, brown, or black. Uniform coloration is the rule, sometimes with adornments such as display plumes. The standout exceptions in the family are the roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja), whose shaded pink plumage is offset by a strange-looking head with bare greenish skin, and the scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber), with its striking uniform red plumage broken only by black wingtips. Most species have some areas of bare skin on the face. The sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus), has no feathers anywhere on the head or neck.

The fossil record of this family goes back 60 million years. It appears that, several times over the course of this long history, flightless species developed on islands. Of these, only the reunion flightless ibis (Threskiornis solitarius), survived into historical times.

Distribution

Ibises and spoonbills can be found almost everywhere in the world that moderate or warm temperatures prevail. They marginally inhabit the edges of deserts like the Sahara. With the exception of some regions of northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, most of the non-Antarctic world south of 45° North latitude is home to at least one species.

Habitat

Ibises and spoonbills can adapt to a surprising variety of habitats. Some species live on arid plateaus and mountains, while most inhabit savannas, forests, and wetlands of all types. Agricultural areas often attract these birds: in Asia, ibises often live near rice paddies, which provide excellent hunting grounds.

Behavior

Most species are very sociable, often breeding in large colonies and wandering about or migrating in flocks, often mingling with other Ciconiiformes such as storks and herons. Migration is common, especially in species living in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa, where food is highly dependent on seasonal rainfall patterns. Their social behavior extends to relationships between species: mixed flocks are common. As many as seven species have been counted in a roosting area.

In flight, the neck is extended forward, similar to that of storks. During the day, ibises and spoonbills will often leave foraging sites to drink and bathe in freshwater ponds. Preening is common and can take a considerable amount of time.

Feeding ecology and diet

Ibises and spoonbills generally obtain their food in shallow water and on the banks, catching small fish, crustaceans, insects, and miscellaneous other invertebrates. Occasionally, they will feed on the eggs of reptiles or other birds. Feeding in the water is done primarily by the sense of touch provided by the sensitive bill.

Reproductive biology

Trees and bushes are popular nest sites for the species in this family, although a few species build nests on the ground or on cliffs. Males often find a suitable nest site and advertise their presence to females, making a show of pointing their bills in the air, bowing, and other movements. They often snap their bills shut to make a popping sound, and will sometimes pick up a twig and shake it. When a female lands nearby, the male may initially reject her: if he accepts her, they join in a display of preening and bowing. Copulation normally takes place at the nesting site, and the male gathers the nesting materials. Both parents incubate the eggs, and share in the task of gathering and regurgitating food for the hatchlings. Clutch size is two to five eggs. White and blue are the predominant egg colors, and in some species, the eggs have dark spots. The incubation period averages 20–31 days, with the chicks remaining in the nest for a fledgling period of 28–56 days.

Conservation status

The Reunion flightless ibis met a premature extinction, apparently at the hands of humans, around 1705. Several existing species are perilously close to following it. The four species classed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN are the dwarf olive ibis (Bostrychia bocagei), the hermit ibis or waldrapp (Geronticus eremita), the white-shouldered ibis (Pseudibis davisoni), and the giant ibis (Pseudibis gigantea). Considered Endangered are the black-faced spoonbill (Platalea minor) and the Japanese or crested ibis (Nipponia nippon), whose population in 2002 (wild and captive) was counted at 48 birds. The black-faced, or Australian, spoonbill (Platalea minor) nests only on islands off the east cost of the Korean Peninsula. Destruction of the tidal zones that are the species' preferred feeding grounds is the suspected cause of the birds' decline, and as few as 700 individuals remain. The bald ibis (Geronticus calvus) is considered Vulnerable, while species subject to lesser threat are the Madagascar crested ibis (Lophotibis cristata) and the black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus). Ibises and spoonbills are under pressure mainly due to wetland reduction by human activity and direct hunting. Pesticides, especially DDT (which is still used in many areas of the world and is blamed for thin, easily broken eggshells) are another source of concern.

Significance to humans

Large-scale trade of bird feathers has dwindled, and with it the hunting that drove many species into peril. However, in many parts of the world, local species are still hunted as a source of food. Ibises in particular have taken on religious significance in some areas. The sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) has been a part of cultural history for 5,000 years; in ancient Egypt, it was revered as the embodiment of Thoth, the god of wisdom, as well as the scribe of the gods.

Species accounts

Resources

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliot, and J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Editions, 1992.

Elphick, Chris, John B. Dunning, Jr., and David Allen Sibley. The Sibley Guide to BirdLife and Behavior. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001.

Hancock, J. A., J. A. Kushlan, and M. P. Kahl. Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World. San Diego: Academic Press, 1992.

Sibley, C. G., and J. E. Ahlquist. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990.

Martinez, Carlos, and Antonio Rodrigues. "Breeding Biology of the Scarlet Ibis on Cajual Island, Northern Brazil." Journal of Field Ornithology 70 (4)(1999): 558–566.

United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Crested Ibis. 30 October 2001.

United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Waldrapp (Northern Bald Ibis). 30 October 2001.

[Article by: Matthew A. Bille MSc; Cherie McCollough, MS]

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: ibises
  Synonyms: family Threskiornithidae, family Ibidiidae

Threskiornithidae
Royal Spoonbill
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Ciconiiformes Family: Threskiornithidae Richmond, 1917
Subfamilies
Threskionithinae Plateinae[1]

The family Threskiornithidae includes 34 species of large terrestrial and wading birds, falling into two subfamilies, the ibises and the spoonbills. It was formerly known as Plataleidae. The spoonbills and ibises were once thought to be related to other groups of long-legged wading birds in the order Ciconiiformes, including the storks, herons, and bitterns. A recent study suggest that they belong to the Pelecaniformes.^[2] Whether the two subfamilies are reciprocally monophyletic is an open question. The South American Checklist Committee's entry for the Threskiornithidae includes the following comment "Two subfamilies are traditionally (e.g., Matheu & del Hoyo 1992) recognized: Threskiornithinae for ibises and Plataleinae for spoonbills; because the main distinction has to do with bill shape, additional information, especially genetic, is required to recognize a major, deep split in the family."^[3]

Contents 1 Description and ecology 2 Species 3 References 4 External links

Description and ecology

Members of the family have long, broad wings with 11 primary feathers and about 20 secondaries. They are strong fliers and, rather surprisingly, given their size and weight, very capable soarers. The body tends to be elongated, the neck more so, with rather long legs. The bill is also long, decurved in the case of the ibises, straight and distinctively flattened in the spoonbills. They are large birds, but mid-sized by the standards of their order, ranging from the Dwarf Olive Ibis (Bostrychia bocagei), at 45 cm (18 in) and 450 g (1 lb), to the Giant Ibis (Thaumatibis gigantea), at 100 cm (40 in) and 4.2 kg (9.2 lb).

They are distributed almost worldwide, being found near almost any area of standing or slow-flowing fresh or brackish water. Ibises are also found in drier areas, including landfills. All are diurnal; spending the day feeding on a wide range of invertebrates and small vertebrates: ibises by probing in soft earth or mud, spoonbills by swinging the bill from side to side in shallow water. At night, they roost in trees near water. They are gregarious, feeding, roosting, and flying together, often in formation.

Nesting is colonial in ibises, more often in small groups or singly in spoonbills, nearly always in trees overhanging water, but sometimes on islands or small islands in swamps. Generally, the female builds a large structure out of reeds and sticks brought by the male. Typical clutch size is 2 to 5; hatching is asynchronic. Both sexes incubate in shifts, and after hatching feed the young by partial regurgitation. Two or three weeks after hatching, the young no longer need to be brooded continuously and may leave the nest, often forming creches but returning to be fed by the parents.

Species

Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia in India.

FAMILY: THRESKIORNITHIDAE

• Subfamily: Threskiornithinae - Ibises
  • Genus Threskiornis
    • Sacred Ibis, Threskiornis aethiopicus
    • Madagascar Sacred Ibis, Threskiornis bernieri
    • Réunion Sacred Ibis, Threskiornis solitarius extinct
    • Black-headed Ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus
    • Australian White Ibis, Threskiornis molucca
    • Straw-necked Ibis, Threskiornis spinicollis
  • Genus Pseudibis
    • Indian Black Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa
    • White-shouldered Ibis, Pseudibis davisoni
  • Genus Thaumatibis
    • Giant Ibis, Thaumatibis gigantea
  • Genus Geronticus
    • Northern Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita
    • Southern Bald Ibis, Geronticus calvus
  • Genus Nipponia
    • Japanese Crested Ibis, Nipponia nippon
  • Genus Bostrychia
    • Olive Ibis, Bostrychia olivacea
    • Dwarf Olive Ibis, Bostrychia bocagei
    • Spot-breasted Ibis, Bostrychia rara
    • Hadada Ibis, Bostrychia hagedash
    • Wattled Ibis, Bostrychia carunculata
  • Genus Theristicus
    • Plumbeous Ibis, Theristicus caerulescens
    • Buff-necked Ibis, Theristicus caudatus
    • Black-faced Ibis, Theristicus melanopis
  • Genus Cercibis
    • Sharp-tailed Ibis, Cercibis oxycerca
  • Genus Mesembrinibis
    • Green Ibis, Mesembrinibis cayennensis
  • Genus Phimosus
    • Whispering Ibis, Phimosus infuscatus
  • Genus Eudocimus
    • American White Ibis, Eudocimus albus
    • Scarlet Ibis, Eudocimus ruber
  • Genus Plegadis
    • Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcinellus
    • White-faced Ibis, Plegadis chihi
    • Puna Ibis, Plegadis ridgwayi
  • Genus Lophotibis
    • Madagascar Crested Ibis, Lophotibis cristata
• Subfamily: Plateinae - Spoonbills
  • Genus Platalea
    • Common Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia'
    • Black-faced Spoonbill, Platalea minor
    • African Spoonbill, Platalea alba
    • Royal Spoonbill, Platalea regia
    • Yellow-billed Spoonbill, Platalea flavipes
    • Roseate Spoonbill, Platalea ajaja

References

1. ^ Myers, P. R.; C. S. Parr; T. Jones; G. S. Hammond; T. A. Dewey. "Family Threskiornithidae (ibises and spoonbills)". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Threskiornithidae.html. Retrieved 2009-09-09. 
2. ^ Hackett, Shannon J.; Rebecca T. Kimball; Sushma Reddy; Rauri C. K. Bowie; Edward L. Braun; Michael J. Braun; Jena L. Chojnowski; W. Andrew Cox; Kin-Lan Han; John Harshman; Christopher J. Huddleston; Ben D. Marks; Kathleen J. Miglia; William S. Moore; Frederick H. Sheldon; David W. Steadman; Christopher C. Witt; Tamaki Yuri; (June 2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History". Science 320 (5884): 1763-1768. doi:10.1126/science.1157704. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/320/5884/1763. 
3. ^ "A classification of the bird species of South America". South American Classification Committee. American Ornithologists' Union. http://www.aou.org/checklist/south.php. Retrieved 2009-09-09. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Threskiornithidae

• Threskiornithidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection

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