tomato

Tomato Click to enlarge

(tə-mā'tō, -mä'-)

1. 1. A widely cultivated South American plant (Lycopersicon esculentum) having edible, fleshy, usually red fruit.
   2. The fruit of this plant.
2. Slang. A woman regarded as attractive.

[Alteration of Spanish tomate, from Nahuatl tomatl.]

WORD HISTORY   Among the greatest contributions to world civilization made by the early inhabitants of the Americas are plant foods such as the potato and squash. The tomato, whose name comes ultimately from the Nahuatl language spoken by the Aztecs and other groups in Mexico and Central America, was another important contribution. When the Spanish conquered this area, they brought the tomato back to Spain and, borrowing the Nahuatl word tomatl for it, named it tomate, a form shared in French, Portuguese, and early Modern English. Tomate, first recorded in 1604, gave way to tomato, a form created in English either because it was assumed to be Spanish or under the influence of the word potato. As is well known, people at first resisted eating this New World food because its membership in the nightshade family made it seem potentially poisonous, but it is now is an important element of many world cuisines.

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cherry tomatoes

The fruit of a bushy and sometimes climbing plant, originally from Mexico and Central America. Tomato varies in color, taste, shape and size according to the variety.
The cherry tomato has a diameter of 1-13∕16 in. (2.5-3 cm).

The yellow (or pear) tomato resembles a small pear. Yellow tomatoes are slightly less acidic than red.
The plum tomato (or Italian or Roma tomato) resembles a small egg.
The grape tomato is a baby plum tomato.
The common tomato has a rounded shape, measures 23∕8-4¾ in. (6-12 cm) in diameter and weighs about 2.5-3.5 oz (75 g-1 kg).
The green tomato is medium-sized and highly flavored.
The genetically modified tomato is a tomato whose genes have been altered for longer keeping.
The hydroponic tomato was created by American agriculturists in 1984 in response to the industry's need for an easily harvested and packaged tomato.

Buying

Choose: intact tomatoes without cracks or wrinkles, firm but yielding to slight pressure, with a bright color and pleasant smell.

Avoid: soft, spotted or damaged tomatoes.

Tomatoes bought at the end of summer are best, as they are picked when ripe.

Preparing

Wash tomato. Peel, seed and trim, if desired, according to how they will 
be used.

To peel: plunge tomato for 15-30 sec in boiling water (don't let it cook or soak), cool it or run under cold water. A colander or metal basket will make this process easier. A very ripe tomato can be peeled immediately. Cut into the skin, grab the skin between the thumb and the blade of a knife, and pull away.

To seed: cut tomato in half and squeeze out the juice and seeds, then remove any remaining seeds.

To trim: remove the hard part of the tomato that holds the stalk by cutting a circle around it.

Serving Ideas

The tomato is eaten raw or cooked. Raw tomato is eaten as is, dressed with vinaigrette or in salads, hors d'oeuvres and sandwiches. Cherry tomato is used raw, often for decorative effect.

The tomato can be stuffed, made into jam or used in soups, sauces, omelettes, risottos, pot roasts and marinades. It is an essential ingredient in ratatouille, gazpacho, pizza and caponata (a Mediterranean vegetable stew). It works very well with garlic, shallot, basil, tarragon, thyme, bay leaf, oregano and cumin. It is delicious with olives, bell peppers and eggplant.

Tomatoes are a perfect accompaniment to tuna and sardines as well as beef, chicken, veal or eggs, and are also featured in many Italian sauces and dishes.

Green tomatoes, edible when cooked, are often sautéed, fried or marinated. Tomatoes can be made into juice, sauce or coulis, or be puréed or crushed.

Tomatoes can also be dried and preserved in a container covered with oil, preferably olive.

Storing

At room temperature: 1 week, away from sunlight. Do not wash them until using. Wrapping green tomatoes individually in paper or covering them with a cloth speeds up the ripening process. Then, they can be kept a few weeks.

In the fridge: to slow the ripening process (2-3 days). Have tomatoes at room temperature for about 30 min before eating, for better flavor.

In the freezer: blanch whole tomatoes 30-60 sec and run under cold water before removing the skin, without letting them soak. Tomatoes can be cooked gently for 5-6 min or until tender with salt and sugar (1 teaspoon/5 ml each) before freezing.

To can tomatoes, use a sterilizing process and put the preparation in the appropriate sterilized jars. Add 1 tablespoon (15 ml) of bottled lemon juiced for every 2 cups (500 ml) of tomatoes, or ¹∕5 teaspoon (1 ml) of citric acid. Add ¼ teaspoon (2 ml) of salt. Add these ingredients after the tomatoes are in the jar.

Cooking

Avoid cooking tomatoes in aluminum receptacles, as this may lead to corrosion. Add a little sugar or honey during cooking to neutralize the acidity of tomatoes. Cook tomatoes over a very gentle heat so that they do not become difficult to digest.
Broiled or baked: 8-15 min. Slice in half and place cut-side up in pan.

Sautéed or fried.

Nutritional Information

Italian tomato

yellow tomato

pear tomato

common tomato

grape tomatoes

tomatillo

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(click to enlarge)
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). (credit: Grant Heilman Photography)

Any fruit of the numerous cultivated varieties of Solanum lycopersicum (formerly Lycopersicon esculentum), a plant of the nightshade family. The plant is generally much branched and has hairy, strongly odorous, feathery leaves. The drooping, clustered, yellow flowers are followed by red, scarlet, or yellow fruits, which hang from the many branches of one weak stem. The tomato fruit varies in shape from spherical to elongate and in size from 0.6 in. (1.5 cm) across to more than 3 in. (7.5 cm) across. The Spanish were bringing tomatoes from South America to Europe by the early 16th century; they were introduced to North America from Europe by the 1780s. Tomatoes are used raw, cooked as a vegetable or puree, and pickled, canned, and sun-dried. The term also applies to the fruit of S. pimpinellifolium, the tiny currant tomato.

For more information on tomato, visit Britannica.com.

An important vegetable, belonging to the genus Lycopersicon, especially L. esculentum, that is grown for its edible fruit. The tomato was first domesticated in Mexico, and was introduced to Europe in the mid-sixteenth century. It has been grown in the United States since colonial days, but it became an important vegetable there only in the past century.

The genus Lycopersicon (Greek, “wolf peach”) is a member of the Solanaceae, the nightshade family. Lycopersicon esculentum, the familiar tomato, can be hybridized with each of the eight other species of Lycopersicon. Tomato breeders have transferred many genes, particularly for disease resistance, from wild Lycopersicon species to the tomato. See also Breeding (plant).

The tomato is a herbaceous perennial, but is usually grown as an annual in temperate regions since it is killed by frost. Cultivated tomatoes are self-fertile. The fruit is a berry with 2 to 12 locules containing many seeds. Most tomato varieties have red fruit, due to the red carotenoid lycopene. Different single genes are known to produce various shades of yellow, orange, or green fruit. There is no basis for the common belief that yellow-fruited tomatoes are low in acidity.

Tomatoes prefer warm weather. Cool temperature, 10°C (50°F) and below, delays seed germination, inhibits vegetative development, reduces fruit set, and impairs fruit ripening. High temperature, above 35°C (95°F), reduces fruit set and inhibits development of normal fruit color. The tomato plant is day-neutral, flowering when grown with either short or long days. This makes it possible to grow tomatoes outdoors during the short days of winter in frost-free areas as well as in more northern areas during the long days of summer.

The tomato is the most important processed vegetable, constituting over 23 lb (10.4 kg) of the 54 lb (24.3 kg) of processed vegetables the average American consumes each year. Tomatoes for processing are harvested when red ripe and are soon sent to a nearby cannery. Tomatoes for fresh market, however, are often harvested at an earlier stage of maturity when they are still firm and better able to tolerate shipment to distant markets. Most tomatoes for fresh market are harvested by hand, but almost all of the processing tomatoes in California are harvested mechanically. See also Agricultural machinery.

The tomato is highly esteemed as a source of vitamin C, and one medium-sized tomato provides about half of the required daily allowance for adults. Tomatoes are also a significant source of vitamin A and are a good source of protein, but most of it is in the seeds. Tomato juice contains 19 amino acids, principally glutamic acid. See also Ascorbic acid; Vitamin A.

The tomato has been a favored organism for genetic studies. Over a thousand genes are known for the tomato, and several hundred of these have been located on their respective chromosomes. See also Food manufacturing; Plant physiology.

The fruit of Lycopersicon esculentum introduced into England as an ornamental plant in 1596. One medium-sized tomato or six cherry tomatoes (85 g) is a good source of vitamin C; provides 1.3 g of dietary fibre; supplies 13 kcal (54 kJ). A 100-mL portion of tomato juice is a rich source of vitamin C; a source of vitamin A (as carotene); provides 3 g of dietary fibre; supplies 12 kcal (50 kJ).

[tuh-MAY-toh; tuh-MAH-toh] Like the potato and eggplant, the tomato is a member of the nightshade family. It's the fruit of a vine native to South America. By the time European explorers arrived in the New World, the tomato had made its way up into Central America and Mexico. The Spanish carried plants back home from Mexico, but it took some time for tomatoes to be accepted in Spain because it was thought that-like various other members of the nightshade family-they were poisonous. Some tomato advocates, however, claimed the fruit had aphrodisiac powers and, in fact, the French called them pommes d'amour, "love apples." It wasn't until the 1900s that the tomato gained some measure of popularity in the United States. Today this fruit is one of America's favorite "vegetables," a classification the government gave the tomato for trade purposes in 1893. Dozens of tomato varieties are available today-ranging widely in size, shape and color. Among the most commonly marketed is the beefsteak tomato, which is delicious both raw and cooked. It's large, bright red and slightly elliptical in shape. Globe tomatoes are medium-size, firm and juicy. Like the beefsteak, they're good both raw and cooked. Another variety is the plum tomato (also called Italian plum and Roma), a flavorful egg-shaped tomato that comes in red and yellow versions. Grape tomatoes are baby romas. The medium-size green tomato has a piquant flavor, which makes it excellent for frying, broiling and adding to relishes. The small cherry tomato is about 1 inch in diameter and can be red or yellow-gold in color. It's very popular-both for eating and as a garnish-because of its bright color and excellent flavor. The yellow cherry tomato is slightly less acidic than the red and therefore somewhat blander in flavor. Though it's long been popular raw in salads, the cherry tomato is gaining favor as a cooked side dish, quickly sautéed with herbs. The yellow pear tomato is slightly smaller than the cherry tomato and resembles a tiny pear. It's used in the same manner as the cherry tomato. Currant tomatoes are the tiniest of the species, measuring only about 0.7 inches in diameter and weighing about 1⁄8 ounce. They come in both red and yellow varieties and have a sweet, crisp flesh. Finding a niche in some produce markets are several unique looking and flavorful heirloom tomato varieties. Among the more interesting are the purple tomatoes (such as Purple Calabash, Brandywine and Cherokee Purple), the skins of which can range in color from a dusky pink with purple shoulders to a dusky rose-purple. Depending on the variety, the flesh color can vary from crimson to a brownish purple-pink. Bicolored and striped tomatoes (such as Marvel Striped, Big White Pink Stripe and Hillbilly) have an orangey skin with faint red striations. This fruit's bicolor flesh is a brilliant yellow with a red center. Fresh tomatoes are available year-round, with the peak season from June through September. The most succulent, flavorful tomatoes are those that are "vine-ripened," usually only available in specialty produce markets. Unfortunately, such tomatoes are very perishable, which is why supermarkets almost always carry tomatoes that have been picked green and ripened with ethylene gas or in special warming rooms. Such tomatoes will never have the texture, aroma and taste of the vine-ripened fruit. Choose firm, well-shaped tomatoes that are noticeably fragrant and richly colored (for their variety). They should be free from blemishes, heavy for their size and give slightly to palm pressure. Ripe tomatoes should be stored at room temperature and used within a few days. They should never be refrigerated-cold temperatures make the flesh pulpy and kills the flavor. Unripe fruit can be ripened by placing it in a pierced paper bag with an apple for several days at room temperature (65° to 75°F). Do not refrigerate or set in the sun. Tomato skins can be removed by blanching. Sun-dried tomatoes are, as the name indicates, dried in the sun (or by other, artificial methods). The result is a chewy, intensely flavored, sweet, dark red tomato. Sun-dried tomatoes are usually either packed in oil or dry-packed in cellophane. The dry-pack type benefits from soaking in oil or other liquid before use. Sun-dried tomatoes add their rich flavor to sauces, soups, sandwiches, salads and myriad other dishes. Canned tomatoes are available in various forms including peeled, whole, crushed, and those with herbs such as oregano and/or basil added. Tomato paste, which is available in cans and tubes, consists of tomatoes that have been cooked for several hours, strained and reduced to a deep red, richly flavored concentrate. Canned tomato purée consists of tomatoes that have been cooked briefly and strained, resulting in a thick liquid. Tomato sauce is a slightly thinner tomato purée, often with seasonings and other flavorings added so that it is ready to use in various dishes or as a base for other sauces. Tomatoes are rich in vitamin C and contain appreciable amounts of vitamins A and B, potassium, iron and phosphorus. A medium tomato has about as much fiber as a slice of whole-wheat bread and only about 35 calories. See also tomatillo.

This design group was founded in 1991 by Steve Baker, Dirk van Dooren, Karl Hyde, Rick Smith, Simon Taylor, John Warwicker, and Graham Wood. Tomato sees itself more as a media and arts collective rather than a design consultancy per se, often working on commercial projects in order to fund personal initiatives. Working in a wide range of media including graphic design, film-making, and music has built up an international reputation for creative excellence. Its corporate clients have included Nike, Coca-Cola, Levi's, Microsoft, and Kodak. It has also acted as a consultant to the British government initiatives relating to the ‘creative industries’ in the later 1990s, extending its work in the cultural sector to design a multimedia identity for the Moderna Museet, Stockholm. As with many other design groups it has published its own history and discourse in the self-authored book, process: a tomato project (1996), which sold widely around the world. This was further consolidated in the very popular exhibition mounted at the Neue Sammlung Museum in Munich in the following year entitled process: a tomato project, munich. In 1998 tomato interactive was founded, followed by the establishment of tomato new york in October 2000.

Juicy Tomato

From our Archives: Today's Highlights, April 1, 2007

The Lycopersicon genus of the Solanaceae family originated along the coastal highlands of western South America. The genus is composed of nine generally accepted species, of which only two are used for culinary purposes: L. esculentum, the common tomato, and, to a much smaller extent, L. pimpinellifolium. Ripe, raw tomatoes consist of approximately 93 percent water. Consuming one hundred grams of raw tomatoes provides seventeen grams of carbohydrates, three grams of protein, twenty-three grams of vitamin C, or about forty percent of the adult recommended daily allowance (RDA), and about nine hundred international units of vitamin A, or about 30 percent of the adult RDA. Today, the tomato is one of the most commonly eaten foods in the world with almost every cuisine employing them in some form.

In the United States, tomatoes are second only to potatoes in U.S. vegetable consumption. During the 1980s and 1990s, U.S. annual per capita use of tomatoes and tomato products has increased by nearly 30 percent, reaching an annual total fresh-weight equivalent of 91 pounds per person by 1999. By that date, the total world production was 111.1 million short tons. Until recently, the United States was the world's largest tomato producer. However, during 1999 China was ranked the largest tomato producer with 18 million short tons, followed by the United States (12.7 million short tons), Turkey, Egypt, and Italy.

The Spread of the Tomato

Although the tomato originated in South America, little evidence has surfaced indicating that indigenous peoples in South America ate tomatoes before the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century. In pre-Columbian times the tomato migrated by unknown means to Central America, where it was domesticated by Mesoamerican peoples. When the Europeans arrived, tomatoes were consumed only in a narrow geographical area from Central America to Mexico City. This lack of widespread diffusion has led observers to conclude that tomatoes were a late addition to the culinary repertoire of Mesoamerica. The Spanish first encountered tomatoes after their conquest of Mexico began in 1519. Tomato plants were disseminated first to the Caribbean, and then to Spain and Italy. From Central America, domesticated tomatoes were introduced into South America by the Spanish Conquistadors. Toward the end of the sixteenth century, tomatoes traveled west to the Philippines, from where they were introduced into Indonesia and later onto the Asian mainland.

Tomatoes were consumed in southern Italy and Spain by the mid-sixteenth century. The first published record of the tomato appeared in an 1544 Italian herbal. By the late seventeenth century, the first known tomato recipes appeared in the cookbook Lo scalco alla moderna (Naples, 1692), by Antonio Latini. By this time, tomatoes were also consumed in the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. Tomato cookery took off in southern France late in the eighteenth century and tomato recipes appeared in French cookbooks by the early nineteenth century. Tomatoes were cultivated in England by 1597; however, little evidence for British consumption has been found prior to the mid-eighteenth century.

Beginning in the seventeenth century, Spanish colonists introduced tomatoes into their settlements in Florida, New Mexico, Texas, and California. As English settlers visited and occupied territories previously controlled or influenced by Spain and Mexico, they were exposed to tomato cookery. Some American colonists ate tomatoes as early as the mid-eighteenth century, although only one colonial cookery manuscript is known to have contained a tomato recipe. From the Southern states, tomato culture slowly spread up the Atlantic coast and into rural areas. By the early nineteenth century, tomato recipes frequently appeared in American cookery manuscripts and cookbooks. By the mid-nineteenth century, tomatoes were a common part of cookery throughout western Europe, the Mediterranean and the Americas. Tomato cookery later expanded into Northern and Eastern Europe, and finally spread to sub-Saharan Africa, and South and East Asia.

Procurement

Traditionally, all aspects of tomato sowing, growing, and harvesting were accomplished by hand. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, machinery began to assist farmers in planting, sowing, and weeding. Although all fresh tomatoes continue to be picked by hand today, tomatoes used for processing are picked by mechanical harvesters, which were first successfully employed in California during the 1950s.

Beginning in the early nineteenth century, tomatoes were bottled by the Frenchman Nicholas Appert. In the United States, tomato canning and bottling began in New Jersey during the 1840s. It expanded during the Civil War, and by 1870 tomatoes were among the top three canned products in America. Tomato cultivation increased in northern states, such as Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and spread south and west after the war. Today, California grows the largest number of tomatoes, with about 80 percent of total U.S. production.

Tomato Canning

The major use of tomatoes is the canning of four major products: whole tomatoes, tomato sauce, tomato paste, and tomato soup. The first canneries processed whole tomatoes. These efforts began in the 1850s and were labor-intensive operations. The fruit were skinned, cored, and trimmed. Cans were fashioned by hand, and the seams were soldered on. These were then boiled in water. The cans were hand-filled, then given to the cappers, who soldered on the lids one at a time. A few days later the cans were hand labeled, loaded onto wagons, and carted to stores.

Before long, every stage of the canning operation had a machine associated with its operation. Devices for capping, filling, scalding, topping, and wiping were introduced, as were power hoists and cranes. Wrapping and boxing machines also soon came into use. Equipment manufacturers developed lines of interconnected equipment. New machinery was released about 1903, providing for the fully automated manufacture of sanitary cans. By the 1920s, the process of canning tomatoes was fully automated. From the time tomatoes arrived by truck until the canned goods were shipped out the back door, the tomatoes were never touched by human hands. Subsequent developments in machinery sped up the process and made it more efficient.

During the 1950s, evaporators originally developed for the dairy industry were adapted for use in tomato processing. The evaporators rapidly remove water and concentrate the pulp to forty-two percent solids. Some concentrate is frozen via flash coolers, which remove water and heat, as the paste falls through the machine. The chilled concentrate is then stored in drums and used when needed. Other concentrate is pumped into aseptic bags, which exclude outside air. Framed in collapsible wooden boxes, the bags are placed on trucks and shipped to factories for conversion into tomato products.

Ketchup Production

Another major use of tomatoes in the United States is in the production of ketchup. Initially, ketchup production began as an attempt to use leftovers from the canning process. These scraps were placed in barrels during the high canning season in September and October and were saved for later conversion into ketchup. As tomato ketchup became more popular, factories emerged that specialized solely in its production. Because the bright red color of the ketchup was an important selling point, ketchup was placed in bottles so that the consumer could see its color. Long narrow-nosed bottles with small holes were employed to reduce contact with air, which oxidized ketchup and turned it a deep dark color. Early ketchup bottlers had great difficulty preventing the introduction of air through the cap. In the early part of the twentieth century researchers developed improved glass bottles that would not shatter during the manufacturing process. Corks were covered with a metal cap that effectively sealed the bottle from contact with outside air. As capping technology improved, screw caps replaced corks.

Early ketchups were thin and were easy to pour out of the small hole at the top of the bottles. After the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906, thick ketchup became the norm in order to meet the new federal standards. Thick ketchups were difficult to pour through the narrow spout, but consumers were already familiar with the narrow nosed bottle and commercial manufacturers had invested time, effort, and funds in creating an image for their bottle.

Packaging changes since the 1970s have greatly increased ketchup usage. The H. J. Heinz Company, the largest ketchup producer in the world, introduced the Vol-Pak, a plastic bag filled aseptically with ketchup. Designed for foodservice operators, restaurants placed the bag on a rack and refilled plastic bottles. The Vol-Pak soon replaced cans. During the 1980s, two additional packaging revolutions occurred: the single-serve ketchup pouch, for which production increased from half a million cases to five million cases in just ten years; and the squeezable plastic ketchup bottle, which was easier to use, and almost unbreakable. By the 1990s, sixty percent of all U.S. ketchup was sold in plastic containers.

Preparation and Consumption

Tomatoes were employed by pre-Columbian Aztecs and other indigenous peoples of Central America for making sauces, particularly in combination with chili peppers and ground squash seeds. After the Spanish conquest, vinegar was added to the tomato and chili peppers to produce salsa. Numerous other uses for the tomato were developed in Mexico and Central America. In Europe, the first tomato recipe appeared in an 1544 Italian herbal, which recommended that tomatoes should be fried in olive oil and seasoned with salt and pepper. Variations of this recipe were published regularly in Europe and later in the Americas. Within a hundred years, tomatoes were well established in southern Italian cookery. The first tomato recipe appeared in a British cookbook in the late eighteenth century. The first known American tomato recipe appeared in Harriott Pinckney Horry's cookery manuscript, dated 1770.

Tomato recipes regularly appeared in American cookbooks by 1792. Early recipes fell into several major categories; the most important was tomato sauce, which originated in Italy and Spain and had migrated to southern France before 1800. Tomato sauce was used on beef, veal, fowl, chicken, rabbit, sweetmeats, pork, macaroni, fish, shrimp, and pigeon. Tomatoes were used to make marmalades, soups, gumbos, gazpacho, ketchups, sweet-breads, jumbles, dumplings, puddings, jelly, figs, omelets, and many other dishes. Tomatoes were stewed, baked, fried, stuffed, hashed, pickled, broiled, scalloped, forced, pickled, and preserved. Green tomatoes were consumed from the beginning, and sometimes were used for seasoning and gravy. Tomatoes were combined with many other vegetables to be consumed as side dishes, including okra and potatoes. Tomatoes were served raw at all meals. Raw tomatoes were seasoned with sugar, molasses, vinegar, salt, pepper, mustard, or milk. The most common way to eat raw tomatoes was sliced and seasoned, like cucumbers, with vinegar, salt, and pepper. Others plucked them from the vine and ate them like ripe fruit, without seasoning.

American restaurants were opened toward the end of the eighteenth century, mostly by French refugees. Their clientele consisted of businessmen and an increasingly affluent upper class. Tomatoes were served in these restaurants at least by the 1820s and probably much earlier. From their inception, restaurants offered a variety of tomato dishes. Tomatoes were noted on hotel menus by 1825. By the 1840s the diversity of tomato dishes dramatically increased.

Tomatoes were also employed to make beverages. The earliest beverages were alcoholic: beer, whisky, champagne, and wine, none of which were particularly successful. The drinking of tomato juice was a mid-twentieth-century phenomenon. According to several accounts, tomato juice was the creation of the American-born French Chef Louis Perrin, who in 1917 served tomato juice to his guests at a resort in French Lick Springs, Indiana. However, none of the early products yielded juice with just the right color and flavor. The reason for the failure of canned tomato juice was that tomato solids settled at the bottom of the can or in the glass when poured out. In 1928, this problem was solved by Ralph Kemp of Frankfort, Indiana, who used a viscolizer previously employed in the manufacture of ice cream. Tomato juice was an instant hit with the American public. Heinz and the Campbell Soup Company moved into high gear to produce tomato juice. One reason that tomato juice was so successful was the end of prohibition. A cocktail made of tomato juice and vodka was probably first developed at Harry's Bar in Paris by Ferdinand "Pete" Petiot, who moved to New York in 1933 and introduced his new creation. After experimentation, he added Worcestershire sauce and called it a Bloody Mary.

Another tomato product was V8 vegetable juice, a blend of eight vegetables along with several flavor-enhancers. It had been conceived in 1933 by W. G. Peacock of Evanston, Illinois. Several people worked on the formula. Peacock interested three investors, and the New England Products Company was created. The product was first created in 1936 under the name "Veg-min" juice. At the first store that sold it, a clerk suggested that they change its name to "V-8," which Peacock did. Later the hyphen was removed and the product was marketed as V8 Cocktail Vegetable Juices. Peacock's entire operation was accomplished by hand, and he only had the ability to produce twenty-five cases per day. V8 juice was a success, but he did not have sufficient manufacturing capability to meet the demand. Peacock sold the V8 formula, and in 1948 the product ended up at the Campbell Soup Company, which is the largest tomato user in the world.

Relation to Human Biology

While there are many reasons for identifying the tomato as a healthy vegetable, the specific attributes that have generated the latest interest are the carotenoids, a family of pigments found in yellow, orange, and red vegetables and in green leafy vegetables. There are over six hundred carotenoids, but the predominant one in tomatoes is lycopene, a pigment that gives tomatoes their red color. The human body cannot manufacture Lycopene or other carotenoids. Some studies have offered evidence that foods rich in antioxidants and carotenoids may play a role in preventing certain types of cancer. Dr. Edward Giovannucci, an assistant professor in the Department of Nutrition at Harvard School of Public Health and the Department of Medicine at the Harvard Medical School, examined responses of fifty thousand participants in the Harvard University Professionals Health Study that began in 1986. He concluded that the consumption of four vegetables and fruits were associated with lower prostate cancer risk: three of the foods he cited were tomato sauce, tomatoes, and pizza. Lycopene is present in each of these. The risk of prostate cancer was one third lower in men who ate tomato-based products. In another study in northern Italy, a high correlation was drawn between tomato consumption and the lack of cancers of the digestive track. Of the 2,700 respondents, those who consumed seven or more servings of raw tomatoes every week had 60 percent less chance of developing cancer of the colon, rectum, and stomach.

Diets with abundant tomatoes cooked in oil were more readily absorbed than other forms of tomato. Pizzas and raw tomatoes were also protective against prostate cancer, but tomato juice was not. Giovannucci believed that cooking broke down the tomatoes' cell walls, releasing more lycopene, and that the oil enhanced absorption of the fat-soluble carotenoid. In the case of raw tomatoes, salad oil may have contributed in a similar manner.

Symbolism

The tomato has become deeply entwined with popular culture throughout the world. In Japan a bank is named for it. In America tomato is slang for an attractive woman. Perhaps the most universal activity has been tomato throwing, a tradition that dates from the mid-nineteenth century. This tradition started in rural areas and moved to theaters to express lack of appreciation. Recently politicians have been the favorite target of tomato throwers. During the late 1940s, tomato throwing became an organized event in Bunyol, a town 25 miles west of the Mediterranean city of Valencia, Spain. The Tomatina festival, held on the last Wednesday in August, has been officially sponsored by the city since 1979. More than 30,000 people pelt each other and the city with tomatoes for a hour.

Other tomato festivals are held in other countries, including the United States. The Reynoldsburg Tomato Festival in Ohio attracts 35,000 residents who engage in tomato contests and consume tomato cookery. The Kendall-Jackson Heirloom Tomato Festival, held just north of Santa Rosa, California, featured tastings from more than 100 heirloom tomato varieties.

Contemporary Issues

Beginning in the 1950s, botanists induced genetic mutations with X rays and chemicals. These mutants were mainly of interest to researchers. The research, however, encouraged further investigations into the chromosomal structure of the tomato, making more sophisticated alterations possible. During the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, this research began to be productive. In a project funded by Campbell's Soup Company, Calgene, Inc., in Davis, California, genetically engineered the first tomato, called MacGregor's, which was slow-ripening and transportable over great distances.

Calgene had conducted research concluding that the rapid softening of ripe tomatoes was caused by an enzyme called Polygalacturonase, or PG. Calgene spliced into the tomato's genes an extra one to cancel out the effect of the PG enzyme, and thus created the Flavr Savr. Thus, the tomato remained firmer in its last week and could be left on the vine to ripen for extra days. After a week or so of extra firmness, the Calgene tomato softens and decays like other tomatoes. The company voluntarily presented their genetically altered tomato to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for approval. The genetically engineered tomato was approved by the FDA's Food Advisory Committee. Since 1994, genetically altered tomatoes have been sold in grocery stores. Other genetically engineered tomatoes are under development. Other companies with strong biotech programs include DNA Plant Technology, Petroseed, Monsanto, Pioneer, and Dupont.

Many critics have strongly opposed genetic engineering of the tomato as presenting an unacceptable risk for humans. Some grocery stores have refused to sell genetically engineered tomatoes, while others have agreed to identify them as genetically engineered. Restaurants have announced that they will boycott the new "mutant" tomatoes. A major concern is that there is no requirement that the genetically altered foods be labeled as such. Many critics believe they have the right to know which products have been altered and which are natural.

The First Known American Tomato Recipe

To Keep Tomatoos for Winter use

Take ripe Tomatas, peel them, and cut them in four and put them into a stew pan, strew over them a great quantity of Pepper and Salt; cover it up close and let it stand an Hour, then put it on the fire and let it stew quick till the liquor is intirely boild away; then take them up and put it into pint Potts, and when cold pour melted butter over them about an inch thick. They commonly take a whole day to stew. Each pot will make two Soups.

N.B. if you do them before the month of Oct they will not keep.

SOURCE: Harriott Pinckney Horry Papers, 28. The Collections of the South Carolina Historical Society.

The Tomato: Vegetable or Fruit?

The edible portion of the tomato is botanically a fruit (defined as a ripened ovary!) as is the edible portion of melons, cucumbers, eggplants, and hot and sweet peppers. However, these plants are considered vegetables both horticulturally and in common English usage. A vegetable in the culinary sense is thought of as an edible herbaceous (soft-stemmed) plant of which some part is eaten, often in the main part of a meal; this includes the fruit as in tomato, the leaves in lettuce, the stem in asparagus, the root in beet, and the seed in the garden pea. The edible portions are also referred to as vegetables. Fruit plants in the horticultural sense are plants in which a more or less succulent fruit or closely related structure is eaten (but usually as a dessert or a snack). In this case the edible portion is also called a fruit, even if it is not clearly a fruit botanically. We call a strawberry a fruit, but it is the hard little seeds that are the botanical fruits (one-seeded fruits called achenes). Fruit plants are most often perennial and usually woody (exceptions include strawberry and banana, which are not truly woody). Fruit plants with fruits borne on trees are termed tree fruits, fruits borne on low-growing plants are called small fruits, and those on vines are called vine fruits. Nuts are a special sub-category of fruits characterized by having a hard shell separating the inner kernel of the seed. There is no precise distinction that can be made between the terms "fruit" and "vegetable." In the case of tomato, confusion can be avoided by referring to it as a "vegetable fruit." In 1893 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the tomato was legally a vegetable in a decision resolving a dispute concerning import duties, making an important legal point that the meanings of terms used in laws and statutes refer to common everyday meanings, not necessarily the scientific meanings.

See also Fruit: Temperate Fruit; Horticulture; Naming of Food; Nuts.

Jules Janick

Love Apples

I gather love-apples very ripe, when they have acquired their beautiful colour. Having washed and drained them, I cut them into pieces, and dissolve them over the fire in a copper vessel well tinned. When they are well dissolved and reduced one third in compass, I strain them through a sieve sufficiently fine to hold the kernels. When the whole has passed through, I replace the decoction on the fire, and I condense it till there remains only one third of the first quantity. Then I let them become cool in stone pans, and put them in bottles, &c. in order to give them one, good boiling only, in the water-bath.

SOURCE: Nicholas Appert, The Art of Preservation. New York: D. Longworth, 1812. pp. 53–54.

Bibliography

Collins, Douglas. America's Favorite Food: The Story of Campbell Soup Company. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994. The history of Campbell Soup Company, the largest tomato user in the world, and the largest producer of tomato soup.

Gould, Wilbur. Tomato Production, Processing and Technology. 3d ed. Baltimore, Md.: CTI Publications, 1992.

Livingston, Alexander. Livingston and the Tomato. Reprint. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998.

Nevins, Donald J., and Richard A. Jones, eds. Tomato Biotechnology. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1987.

Rick, Charles, "Genetic Resources in Lycopersicon," in Donald J. Nevins and Richard A. Jones, Tomato Biotechnology. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1987.

Smith, Andrew F. Pure Ketchup: The History of America's National Condiment. Columbia: The University of South Carolina Press, 1996.

Smith, Andrew F. Souper Tomatoes: The Story of America's Favorite Food. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000.

Smith, Andrew F. The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture, and Cookery. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.

Tracy, Will W. The Tomato Culture. New York: Orange Judd Co., 1907.

—Andrew F. Smith

LearnThatWord.com is a free vocabulary and spelling program where you only pay for results!

• Vegetables, Legumes, and Fungi
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• Flirtation, Dating, and Courting - tomato: Slang. attractive young woman

For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation).

Tomato
Cross-section and full view of a hothouse (greenhouse-grown) tomato. Note the comparatively pale inner flesh.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Asterids
Order:	Solanales
Family:	Solanaceae
Genus:	Solanum
Species:	S. lycopersicum
Binomial name
Solanum lycopersicum L.
Synonyms
Lycopersicon lycopersicum Lycopersicon esculentum[1]

The word "tomato" may refer to the plant (Solanum lycopersicum) or the edible, typically red, fruit which it bears. Originating in South America, the tomato was spread around the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas, and its many varieties are now widely grown, often in greenhouses in cooler climates.

The tomato fruit is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in many dishes and sauces, and in drinks. While it is botanically a fruit, it is considered a vegetable for culinary purposes (as well as by the United States Supreme Court, see Nix v. Hedden), which has caused some confusion. The fruit is rich in lycopene, which may have beneficial health effects.

The tomato belongs to the nightshade family. The plants typically grow to 1–3 metres (3–10 ft) in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its native habitat, although often grown outdoors in temperate climates as an annual.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Spanish distribution 1.2 Britain 1.3 Middle East 1.4 North America 2 Cultivation 2.1 Varieties 2.2 Diseases and pests 2.3 Companion plants 2.4 Pollination 2.5 Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivation 2.6 Picking and ripening 2.7 Genetic modification 3 Consumption 3.1 Nutrition 3.2 Medicinal properties 3.3 Storage 3.4 Safety 3.4.1 Plant toxicity 3.4.2 Salmonella 4 Botanical description 5 Botanical classification 6 Breeding 7 Fruit or vegetable? 8 Names 8.1 Pronunciation 9 Tomato records 10 Cultural impact 11 Gallery 12 See also 13 Footnotes 14 Further reading 15 External links

History

The tomato is native to South America. Genetic evidence shows the progenitors of tomatoes were herbaceous green plants with small green fruit and a center of diversity in the highlands of Peru.^[2][3] One species, Solanum lycopersicum, was transported to Mexico, where it was grown and consumed by Mesoamerican civilizations. The exact date of domestication is not known. The first domesticated tomato may have been a little yellow fruit, similar in size to a cherry tomato, grown by the Aztecs of Central Mexico.^{[4][unreliable source?]} The word "tomato" comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl, literally "the swelling fruit".^[5]

Spanish explorer Cortés may have been the first to transfer the small yellow tomato to Europe after he captured the Aztec city of Tenochtítlan, now Mexico City, in 1521, although Christopher Columbus, a Genoese working for the Spanish monarchy, may have taken them back as early as 1493. The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in an herbal written in 1544 by Pietro Andrea Mattioli, an Italian physician and botanist, who named it pomo d’oro, or "golden apple".^[3]:13

Aztecs and other peoples in the region used the fruit in their cooking; it was cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas by 500 BC. The Pueblo people are thought to have believed that those who witnessed the ingestion of tomato seeds were blessed with powers of divination.^[6] The large, lumpy tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller fruit, originated in Mesoamerica, and may be the direct ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes.^[3]

Spanish distribution

After the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Spanish distributed the tomato throughout their colonies in the Caribbean. They also took it to the Philippines, from where it spread to southeast Asia and then the entire Asian continent. The Spanish also brought the tomato to Europe. It grew easily in Mediterranean climates, and cultivation began in the 1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as food by the early 17th century in Spain. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources.^[3]:17 In certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, however, the fruit was used solely as a tabletop decoration before it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century.

Britain

Tomatoes on display at Borough Market in London

Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s.^[3]:17 One of the earliest cultivators was John Gerard, a barber-surgeon.^[3]:17 Gerard's Herbal, published in 1597, and largely plagiarized from continental sources,^[3]:17 is also one of the earliest discussions of the tomato in England. Gerard knew the tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy.^[3]:17 Nonetheless, he believed it was poisonous^[3]:17 (in fact, the plant and raw fruit do have low levels of tomatine, but are not generally dangerous; see below). Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was considered unfit for eating (though not necessarily poisonous) for many years in Britain and its North American colonies.^[3]:17 By the mid-18th century, tomatoes were widely eaten in Britain, and before the end of that century, the Encyclopædia Britannica stated the tomato was "in daily use" in soups, broths, and as a garnish.

Middle East

The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo circa 1799 to 1825.^[7][8] Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region "within the last forty years".^[9]

The tomato entered Iran through two separate routes;^{[citation needed]} one was through Turkey and Armenia, and the other was through the Qajar royal family's frequent travels to France. The early name used for tomato in Iran was Armani badenjan (Armenian eggplant). Currently, the name used for tomato in Iran is gojeh farangi [foreign (literally, European) plum].

North America

The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon reported seeing them in what is today South Carolina.^[3]:25 They may have been introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast as well. Possibly, some people continued to think tomatoes were poisonous at this time; and in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. Thomas Jefferson, who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America.^[3]:28

Cherry tomatoes – various colors upon ripening

Because of the long growing season needed for this heat-loving crop, several states in the US Sun Belt became major tomato-producers, particularly Florida and California. In California, tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both the fresh fruit market and for canning and processing. The University of California, Davis (UC Davis) became a major center for research on the tomato. The C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center at UC Davis is a gene bank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and miscellaneous genetic stocks of tomato.^[10] The Center is named for the late Dr. Charles M. Rick, a pioneer in tomato genetics research.^[11] Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato Research Institute in Escalon, California.

In California, growers have used a method of cultivation called dry-farming, especially with Early Girl tomatoes.^[12] This technique encourages the plant to send roots deep to find existing moisture in soil that retains moisture, such as clayey soil.

Cultivation

Tomato output in 2005

A basket of tomatoes displayed in a Singaporean supermarket

The tomato is now grown worldwide for its edible fruits, with thousands of cultivars having been selected with varying fruit types, and for optimum growth in differing growing conditions. Cultivated tomatoes vary in size, from tomberries, about 5 mm in diameter, through cherry tomatoes, about the same 1–2 centimeters (0.4–0.8 in) size as the wild tomato, up to beefsteak tomatoes 10 centimeters (4 in) or more in diameter. The most widely grown commercial tomatoes tend to be in the 5–6 centimeters (2.0–2.4 in) diameter range. Most cultivars produce red fruit, but a number of cultivars with yellow, orange, pink, purple, green, black, or white fruit are also available. Multicolored and striped fruit can also be quite striking. Tomatoes grown for canning and sauces are often elongated, 7–9 centimeters (3–4 in) long and 4–5 centimeters (1.6–2.0 in) diameter; they are known as plum tomatoes, and have a lower water content. Roma-type tomatoes are important cultivars in the Sacramento Valley.^[13]

Tomato seedlings growing indoors

Tomatoes are one of the most common garden fruits in the United States and, along with zucchini, have a reputation for outproducing the needs of the grower.

Green tomatoes nestled on the vine

Quite a few seed merchants and banks provide a large selection of heirloom seeds. The definition of an heirloom tomato is vague, but unlike commercial hybrids, all are self-pollinators which have bred true for 40 years or more.^[13]

About 150 million tons of tomatoes were produced in the world in 2009. China, the largest producer, accounted for about one quarter of the global output, followed by United States and India. For one variety, plum or processing tomatoes, California accounts for 90% of U.S. production and 35% of world production.^[14]

According to FAOSTAT, the top producers of tomatoes (in tonnes) in 2009 were:^[15]

Top Tomato Producers – 2009 (in tonnes)
China	45,365,543
United States	14,141,900
India	11,148,800
Turkey	10,745,600
Egypt	10,000,000
World Total	152,956,115

Within the EU, there are several areas that grow tomatoes with Protected Geographical Status. These include:

• Pomodoro di Pachino (PGI), in Sicily
• Pomodoro S. Marzano dell'Agro Sarnese-Nocerino (PDO), in south Italy
• Tomaten von der Insel Reichenau (PGI), from Reichenau Island, Germany

Varieties

For a more comprehensive list, see List of tomato cultivars.

Cherry tomatoes such as these Super Sweet 100 variety are small tomatoes that have been bred and grown in Greece since the early 1800s.^[16]

There are around 7500 tomato varieties grown for various purposes. Heirloom tomatoes are becoming increasingly popular, particularly among home gardeners and organic producers, since they tend to produce more interesting and flavorful crops at the cost of disease resistance and productivity.^[13]

Hybrid plants remain common, since they tend to be heavier producers, and sometimes combine unusual characteristics of heirloom tomatoes with the ruggedness of conventional commercial tomatoes.

Various heirloom tomato cultivars

Tomato varieties are roughly divided into several categories, based mostly on shape and size.

• "Slicing" or "globe" tomatoes are the usual tomatoes of commerce, used for a wide variety of processing and fresh eating.
• Beefsteak tomatoes are large tomatoes often used for sandwiches and similar applications. Their kidney-bean shape, thinner skin, and shorter shelf life makes commercial use impractical.
• Oxheart tomatoes can range in size up to beefsteaks, and are shaped like large strawberries.
• Plum tomatoes, or paste tomatoes (including pear tomatoes), are bred with a higher solids content for use in tomato sauce and paste, and are usually oblong.
• Pear tomatoes are obviously pear-shaped, and are based upon the San Marzano types for a richer gourmet paste.
• Cherry tomatoes are small and round, often sweet tomatoes generally eaten whole in salads.
• Grape tomatoes, a more recent introduction, are smaller and oblong, a variation on plum tomatoes, and used in salads.
• Campari tomatoes are also sweet and noted for their juiciness, low acidity, and lack of mealiness. They are bigger than cherry tomatoes, but are smaller than plum tomatoes.

Early tomatoes and cool-summer tomatoes bear fruit even where nights are cool, which usually discourages fruit set. There are also varieties high in beta carotenes and vitamin A, hollow tomatoes and tomatoes which keep for months in storage.

Tomatoes are also commonly classified as determinate or indeterminate. Determinate, or bush, types bear a full crop all at once and top off at a specific height; they are often good choices for container growing. Determinate types are preferred by commercial growers who wish to harvest a whole field at one time, or home growers interested in canning. Indeterminate varieties develop into vines that never top off and continue producing until killed by frost. They are preferred by home growers and local-market farmers who want ripe fruit throughout the season. As an intermediate form, there are plants sometimes known as vigorous determinate or semideterminate; these top off like determinates, but produce a second crop after the initial crop. The majority of heirloom tomatoes are indeterminate, although some determinate heirlooms exist.

A variety of specific cultivars, including Brandywine (biggest red), Black Krim (lower left) and Green Zebra (top right)

Most modern tomato cultivars are smooth surfaced, but some older tomato cultivars and most modern beefsteaks often show pronounced ribbing, a feature that may have been common to virtually all pre-Columbian cultivars. While virtually all commercial tomato varieties are red, some cultivars – especially heirlooms – produce fruit in other colors, including green, yellow, orange, pink, black, brown, ivory, white, and purple. Such fruits are not widely available in grocery stores, nor are their seedlings available in typical nurseries, but they can be bought as seed. Less common variations include fruit with stripes (Green Zebra), fuzzy skin on the fruit (Fuzzy Peach, Red Boar), multiple colors (Hillbilly, Burracker's Favorite, Lucky Cross), etc.

There is also a considerable gap between commercial and home-gardener cultivars; home cultivars are often bred for flavor to the exclusion of all other qualities, while commercial cultivars are bred for such factors as consistent size and shape, disease and pest resistance, suitability for mechanized picking and shipping, and ability to be picked before fully ripening.^{[citation needed]}

Tomatoes grow well with seven hours of sunlight a day. A fertilizer with an NPK ratio of 5-10-10 is often sold as tomato fertilizer or vegetable fertilizer, although manure and compost are also used.

Diseases and pests

For a more comprehensive list, see List of tomato diseases.

Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants. One common tomato disease is tobacco mosaic virus, so smoking or use of tobacco products are discouraged around tomatoes, although there is some scientific debate^{[citation needed]} over whether the virus could possibly survive being burned and converted into smoke.^[17] Various forms of mildew and blight are also common tomato afflictions, which is why tomato cultivars are often marked with a combination of letters which refer to specific disease resistance. The most common letters are: V – verticillium wilt, F – fusarium wilt strain I, FF – fusarium wilt strain I and II, N – nematodes, T – tobacco mosaic virus, and A – alternaria.

Tomato fruitworm eating unripe tomato

Another particularly dreaded disease is curly top, carried by the beet leafhopper, which interrupts the lifecycle, ruining a nightshade plant as a crop. As the name implies, it has the symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally.

Some common tomato pests are stink bugs, cutworms, tomato hornworms and tobacco hornworms, aphids, cabbage loopers, whiteflies, tomato fruitworms, flea beetles, red spider mite, slugs,^[18] and Colorado potato beetles.

When insects attack tomato plants, they produce the plant peptide hormone, systemin, which activates defensive mechanisms, such as the production of protease inhibitors to slow the growth of insects. The hormone was first identified in tomatoes, but similar proteins have been identified in other species since.^[19]

Companion plants

See also: List of companion plants and List of beneficial weeds

Tomatoes serve, or are served by, a large variety of companion plants.

In fact, one of the most famous pairings is the tomato plant and carrots;studies supporting this relationship having produced a popular book about companion planting, Carrots Love Tomatoes.^[20]

Additionally, the devastating tomato hornworm has a major predator in various parasitic wasps, whose larvae devour the hornworm, but whose adult form drinks nectar from tiny-flowered plants like umbellifers. Several species of umbellifer are therefore often grown with tomato plants, including parsley, queen anne's lace, and occasionally dill. These also attract predatory flies that attack various tomato pests[2].

On the other hand, borage is thought to actually repel the tomato hornworm moth[3].

Other plants with strong scents, like alliums (onions, chives, garlic) and mints (basil, oregano, spearmint) are simply thought to mask the scent of the tomato plant, making it harder for pests to locate it, or to provide an alternative landing point, reducing the odds of the pests from attacking the correct plant[4]. These plants may also subtly impact the flavor of tomato fruit[5].

Ground cover plants, including mints, also stabilize moisture loss around tomato plants and other solaneae, which come from very humid climates, and therefore may prevent moisture-related problems like blossom end rot.

Finally, tap-root plants like dandelions break up dense soil and bring nutrients from down below a tomato plant's reach, possibly benefiting their companion.

Tomato plants, on the other hand, protect asparagus from asparagus beetles, because they contain solanum that kills this pest, while asparagus plants (as well as marigolds[6]) contain a chemical that repels root nematodes known to attack tomato plants.

Pollination

The flower and leaves are visible in this photo of a tomato plant.

In the wild, original state, tomatoes required cross-pollination; they were much more self-incompatible than domestic cultivars. As a floral device to reduce selfing, the pistil of wild tomatoes extends farther out of the flower than today's cultivars. The stamens were, and remain, entirely within the closed corolla.

As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators, (probably a species of halictid bee^{[citation needed]}) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility became an advantage, and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this trait.

This is not the same as self-pollination, despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse situations, where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants (one brand of vibrator is a wand called an "electric bee" that is used manually), or more often today, by cultured bumblebees.^{[citation needed]} The anther of a tomato flower is shaped like a hollow tube, with the pollen produced within the structure, rather than on the surface, as in most species. The pollen moves through pores in the anther, but very little pollen is shed without some kind of outside motion. The best source of outside motion is a sonicating bee, such as a bumblebee, or the original wild halictid pollinator. In an outside setting, wind or animals provide sufficient motion to produce commercially viable crops.

Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivation

Tomatoes are often grown in greenhouses in cooler climates, and there are cultivars such as the British 'Moneymaker' and a number of cultivars grown in Siberia that are specifically bred for indoor growing. In more temperate climates, it is not uncommon to start seeds in greenhouses during the late winter for future transplant.

Hydroponic tomatoes are also available, and the technique is often used in hostile growing environments, as well as high-density plantings.

Picking and ripening

Unripe tomatoes

Close up view of unripe tomatoes

Tomatoes are often picked unripe (and thus colored green) and ripened in storage with ethylene. Unripe tomatoes are firm. As they ripen they soften until reaching the ripe state where they are red or orange in color and slightly soft to the touch.^{[citation needed]} Ethylene is a hydrocarbon gas produced by many fruits that acts as the molecular cue to begin the ripening process. Tomatoes ripened in this way tend to keep longer, but have poorer flavor and a mealier, starchier texture than tomatoes ripened on the plant.^{[citation needed]} They may be recognized by their color, which is more pink or orange than the other ripe tomatoes' deep red, depending on variety.^{[citation needed]}

A machine-harvestable variety of tomato (the "square tomato") was developed in the 1950s by University of California, Davis's Gordie C. Hanna, which, in combination with the development of a suitable harvester, revolutionized the tomato-growing industry.^{[citation needed]} In 1994, Calgene introduced a genetically modified tomato called the 'FlavrSavr', which could be vine ripened without compromising shelf life. However, the product was not commercially successful, and was sold only until 1997.^{[citation needed]}

Recently, stores have begun selling "tomatoes on the vine", which are determinate varieties that are ripened or harvested with the fruits still connected to a piece of vine. These tend to have more flavor than artificially ripened tomatoes^{[citation needed]} (at a price premium).

Slow-ripening cultivars of tomato have been developed by crossing a nonripening cultivar with ordinary cultivars. Cultivars were selected whose fruits have a long shelf life and at least reasonable flavor.

At home, fully ripe tomatoes can be stored in the refrigerator, but are best kept at room temperature. Tomatoes stored cold will still be edible, but tend to lose flavor;^[21] thus, "Never Refrigerate" stickers are sometimes placed on tomatoes in supermarkets.^{[citation needed]}

Genetic modification

Main article: Genetically modified tomato

Tomatoes that have been modified using genetic engineering have been developed, and although none are commercially available now, they have been in the past. The first commercially available genetically modified food was a variety of tomato named (the Flavr Savr), which was engineered to have a longer shelf life.^[22] Scientists are continuing to develop tomatoes with new traits not found in natural crops, such as increased resistance to pests or environmental stresses. Other projects aim to enrich tomatoes with substances that may offer health benefits or provide better nutrition.

Consumption

Tomato soup

Pa amb tomàquet

The tomato is now grown and eaten around the world. It is used in diverse ways, including raw in salads, and processed into ketchup or tomato soup. Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to make salsa, or pickled. Tomato juice is sold as a drink, and is used in cocktails such as the Bloody Mary.

Tomatoes are acidic, making them especially easy to preserve in home canning whole, in pieces, as tomato sauce or paste. The fruit is also preserved by drying, often in the sun, and sold either in bags or in jars with oil.

Tomatoes are used extensively in Mediterranean cuisine, especially Italian and Middle Eastern cuisines. They are a key ingredient in pizza, and are commonly used in pasta sauces. They are also used in gazpacho (Spanish cuisine) and pa amb tomàquet (Catalan cuisine).

Though it is botanically a berry, a subset of fruit, the tomato is a vegetable for culinary purposes, because of its savory flavor (see below).

Red tomatoes, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	74 kJ (18 kcal)
Carbohydrates	3.9 g
- Sugars	2.6 g
- Dietary fiber	1.2 g
Fat	0.2 g
Protein	0.9 g
Water	94.5 g
Vitamin A equiv.	42 μg (5%)
- lutein and zeaxanthin	123 μg
Vitamin C	14 mg (17%)
Vitamin E	0.54 mg (4%)
Potassium	237 mg (5%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Nutrition

Tomatoes are now eaten freely throughout the world, and their consumption is believed to benefit the heart, among other organs. They contain the carotene lycopene, one of the most powerful natural antioxidants. In some studies, lycopene, especially in cooked tomatoes, has been found to help prevent prostate cancer,^[23] but other research contradicts this claim.^[24] Lycopene has also been shown to improve the skin's ability to protect against harmful UV rays.^[25] Natural genetic variation in tomatoes and their wild relatives has given a genetic plethora of genes that produce lycopene, carotene, anthocyanin, and other antioxidants. Tomato varieties are available with double the normal vitamin C (Doublerich), 40 times normal vitamin A (97L97), high levels of anthocyanin (resulting in blue tomatoes), and two to four times the normal amount of lycopene (numerous available cultivars with the high crimson gene).

Medicinal properties

Lycopene has also been shown to protect against oxidative damage in many epidemiological and experimental studies. In addition to its antioxidant activity, other metabolic effects of lycopene have also been demonstrated. The richest source of lycopene in the diet is tomato and tomato derived products.^[26] Tomato consumption has been associated with decreased risk of breast cancer,^[27] head and neck cancers^[28] and might be strongly protective against neurodegenerative diseases.^[29][30][31] Tomatoes and tomato sauces and puree are said to help lower urinary tract symptoms (BPH) and may have anticancer properties.^[32] Tomato consumption might be beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk associated with type 2 diabetes.^[33]

Storage

Tomatoes that are not yet ripe are optimally stored at room temperature uncovered, out of direct sunlight, until ripe.^[34] In this environment, they have a shelf life of three to four days.^[34] When ripe, they should be used in one to two days.^[34] Tomatoes should only be refrigerated when well ripened, but this will affect flavor.^[34]

Safety

Plant toxicity

Like many other nightshades, tomato leaves and stems contain atropine and other tropane alkaloids that are toxic if ingested. Ripened fruit does not contain these compounds^{[citation needed]}. Leaves, stems, and green unripe fruit of the tomato plant contain small amounts of the poisonous alkaloid tomatine.^[35] Use of tomato leaves in tea (tisane) has been responsible for at least one death.^[36] However, levels of tomatine are generally too small to be dangerous.^[35][37]

Tomato plants can be toxic to dogs if they eat large amounts of the fruit, or chew plant material.^[38]

Salmonella

A sign posted at a Havelock, North Carolina Burger King tells customers that no tomatoes are available due to the salmonellosis outbreak.

On October 30, 2006, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) announced tomatoes might have been the source of a salmonellosis outbreak causing 172 illnesses in 18 states.^[39] Tomatoes have been linked to seven salmonella outbreaks since 1990.^[40]

The 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak caused the removal of tomatoes from stores and restaurants across the United States and parts of Canada,^[41] although other foods, including jalapeño and serrano peppers, may have been involved.

Botanical description

Tomato flower in June, Castelltallat

Tomato plants are vines, initially decumbent, typically growing six feet or more above the ground if supported, although erect bush varieties have been bred, generally three feet tall or shorter. Indeterminate types are "tender" perennials, dying annually in temperate climates (they are originally native to tropical highlands), although they can live up to three years in a greenhouse in some cases. Determinate types are annual in all climates.

Tomato plants are dicots, and grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the tip that does the actual growing. When that tip eventually stops growing, whether because of pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into other, fully functional, vines.^[42]

Tomato vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. These hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the ground and moisture, especially if the vine's connection to its original root has been damaged or severed.

Most tomato plants have compound leaves, and are called regular leaf (RL) plants, but some cultivars have simple leaves known as potato leaf (PL) style because of their resemblance to that close cousin. Of RL plants, there are variations, such as rugose leaves, which are deeply grooved, and variegated, angora leaves, which have additional colors where a genetic mutation causes chlorophyll to be excluded from some portions of the leaves.^[43]

The leaves are 10–25 centimetres (4–10 in) long, odd pinnate, with five to 9 leaflets on petioles,^[44] each leaflet up to 8 centimetres (3 in) long, with a serrated margin; both the stem and leaves are densely glandular-hairy.

Their flowers, appearing on the apical meristem, have the anthers fused along the edges, forming a column surrounding the pistil's style. Flowers in domestic cultivars tend to be self-fertilizing. The flowers are 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) across, yellow, with five pointed lobes on the corolla; they are borne in a cyme of three to 12 together.

Tomato fruit is classified as a berry. As a true fruit, it develops from the ovary of the plant after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains hollow spaces full of seeds and moisture, called locular cavities. These vary, among cultivated species, according to type. Some smaller varieties have two cavities, globe-shaped varieties typically have three to five, beefsteak tomatoes have a great number of smaller cavities, while paste tomatoes have very few, very small cavities.

For propagation, the seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and be dried or fermented before germination.

Botanical classification

In 1753, Linnaeus placed the tomato in the genus Solanum (alongside the potato) as Solanum lycopersicum. In 1768,though, Philip Miller moved it to its own genus, naming it Lycopersicon esculentum.^[45] This name came into wide use, but was in breach of the plant naming rules. Technically, the combination Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H.Karst. would be more correct, but this name (published in 1881) has hardly ever been used (except in seed catalogs, which frequently used it and still do).

Genetic evidence has now shown that Linnaeus was correct to put the tomato in the genus Solanum, making Solanum lycopersicum the correct name.^[1][46] Both names, however, will probably be found in the literature for some time. Two of the major reasons some still consider the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves are markedly different from any other Solanum), and the biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent in the tomato). Hybrids of tomato and diploid potato can be created in the lab by somatic fusion, and are partially fertile,^[47] providing evidence of the close relationship between these species.

An international consortium of researchers from 10 countries, among them researchers from the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, began sequencing the tomato genome in 2004, and is creating a database of genomic sequences and information on the tomato and related plants.^[48][49] A prerelease version of the genome was made available in December, 2009.^[50] The genomes of its mitochondria and chloroplasts are also being sequenced as part of the project.

Breeding

Active breeding programs are ongoing by individuals, universities, corporations, and organizations. The Tomato Genetic Resource Center, Germplasm Resources Information Network, AVRDC, and numerous seed banks around the world store seed representing genetic variations of value to modern agriculture. These seed stocks are available for legitimate breeding and research efforts. While individual breeding efforts can produce useful results, the bulk of tomato breeding work is at universities and major agriculture-related corporations. These efforts have resulted in significant regionally adapted breeding lines and hybrids, such as the Mountain series from North Carolina. Corporations including Heinz, Monsanto, BHNSeed, Bejoseed, etc., have breeding programs that attempt to improve production, size, shape, color, flavor, disease tolerance, pest tolerance, nutritional value, and numerous other traits.

Fruit or vegetable?

Botanically, a tomato is a fruit: the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a much lower sugar content than other fruits, and is therefore not as sweet. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is considered a vegetable for most culinary purposes. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices: they are acidic enough to be processed in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as "vegetables" require. Tomatoes are not the only foodstuff with this ambiguity: eggplants, cucumbers, and squashes of all kinds (such as zucchini and pumpkins) are all botanically fruits, yet cooked as vegetables.

This argument has had legal implications in the United States. In 1887, U.S. tariff laws that imposed a duty on vegetables, but not on fruits, caused the tomato's status to become a matter of legal importance. The U.S. Supreme Court settled the controversy on May 10, 1893, by declaring that the tomato is a vegetable, based on the popular definition that classifies vegetables by use, that they are generally served with dinner and not dessert (Nix v. Hedden (149 U.S. 304)).^[51] The holding of the case applies only to the interpretation of the Tariff Act of March 3, 1883, and the court did not purport to reclassify the tomato for botanical or other purposes.

Tomatoes have been designated the state vegetable of New Jersey. Arkansas took both sides by declaring the "South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato" to be both the state fruit and the state vegetable in the same law, citing both its culinary and botanical classifications. In 2009, the state of Ohio passed a law making the tomato the state's official fruit. Tomato juice has been the official beverage of Ohio since 1965. A.W. Livingston, of Reynoldsburg, Ohio, played a large part in popularizing the tomato in the late 19th century; his efforts are commemorated in Reynoldsburg with an annual Tomato Festival.

Names

The scientific species epithet lycopersicum means "wolf peach", and comes from German werewolf myths. These said that deadly nightshade was used to summon werewolves, so the tomato's similar, but much larger, fruit was called the "wolf peach" when it arrived in Europe.^[52]

The Aztecs called the fruit xitomatl (pronounced [ʃiːˈtomatɬ]), meaning plump thing with a navel. Other Mesoamerican peoples, including the Nahuas, took the name as tomatl, from which some European languages derived the name "tomato".

Pronunciation

The pronunciation of tomato differs in different English-speaking countries; the two most common variants are /təˈmɑːtoʊ/ (tə-mah-toh) and /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ (tə-may-toh). Speakers from the British Isles, most of the Commonwealth, and speakers of Southern American English typically say /təˈmɑːtoʊ/, while most North American speakers usually say /təˈmeɪtoʊ/.

The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin's 1937 song Let's Call the Whole Thing Off ("You like /pəˈteɪtoʊ/ and I like /pəˈtɑːtoʊ/ / You like /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and I like /təˈmɑːtoʊ/") and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has even become an American and British slang term: saying /təˈmeɪtoʊ, təˈmɑːtoʊ/ when presented with two choices can mean "What's the difference?" or "It's all the same to me."

Tomato records

The "tomato tree" as seen by guests on the Living with the Land boat ride at Epcot, Lake Buena Vista, Florida

The heaviest tomato ever, weighing 3.51 kg (7 lb 12 oz), was of the cultivar 'Delicious', grown by Gordon Graham of Edmond, Oklahoma in 1986.^{[4][unreliable source?]} The largest tomato plant grown was of the cultivar 'Sungold' and reached 19.8 m (65 ft) in length, grown by Nutriculture Ltd (UK) of Mawdesley, Lancashire, UK, in 2000.^[53]

The massive "tomato tree" growing inside the Walt Disney World Resort's experimental greenhouses in Lake Buena Vista, Florida may be the largest single tomato plant in the world. The plant has been recognized as a Guinness World Record Holder, with a harvest of more than 32,000 tomatoes and a total weight of 522 kg (1,150 lb).^[54] It yields thousands of tomatoes at one time from a single vine. Yong Huang, Epcot's manager of agricultural science, discovered the unique plant in Beijing, China. Huang brought its seeds to Epcot and created the specialized greenhouse for the fruit to grow. The vine grows golf ball-sized tomatoes which are served at Walt Disney World restaurants.

Unfortunately, the world record-setting tomato tree can no longer be seen by guests along the Living With the Land boat ride at Epcot, as the tree developed a disease and was removed in April 2010 after approximately 13 months of life.^[54]

On August 30, 2007, 40,000 Spaniards gathered in Buñol to throw 115,000 kilograms (250,000 lb) of tomatoes at each other in the yearly Tomatina festival.^[55]

Cultural impact

The town of Buñol, Spain, annually celebrates La Tomatina, a festival centered on an enormous tomato fight. Tomatoes are also a popular "nonlethal" throwing weapon in mass protests, and there was a common tradition of throwing rotten tomatoes at bad performers on a stage during the 19th century; today this is usually referenced as a mere metaphor. Embracing it for this protest connotation, the Dutch Socialist party adopted the tomato as their logo.

The US city of Reynoldsburg, Ohio calls itself "The Birthplace of the Tomato", claiming the first commercial variety of tomato was bred there in the 19th century.^[56]

Several US states have adopted the tomato as a state fruit or vegetable (see above).

Gallery

• 

  Unripe tomatoes on a vine, good for pickling

• 

  Small cherry tomatoes in Korea

• 

  Tomatoes on a vine

• 

  Tomato slices

• 

  Tomato plants in the garden.

• 

  Tomato flower

• 

  Heirloom tomatoes in pico de gallo

• 

  Tomato fruit

• 

  'P20' blue tomato from OSU

• 

  Unripe tomato in late June in New Jersey

• 

  Tomato baskets in Nepal

See also

Suquet de peix (Catalan cuisine)

• Flavr Savr
• List of heirloom tomato cultivars
• List of tomato cultivars
• Marglobe
• Ring culture
• Tomatillo
• Tomberry

Footnotes

1. ^ ^{a b} "Molecular phylogenetic analyses have established that the formerly segregate genera Lycopersicon, Cyphomandra, Normania, and Triguera are nested within Solanum, and all species of these four genera have been transferred to Solanum." See: Natural History Museum, Solanaceae Source: Phylogeny of the genus Solanum.
2. ^ Sam Cox (December 2000) I Say Tomayto, You Say Tomahto...^{[self-published source?]}
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Smith, Andrew F (1994). The tomato in America: early history, culture, and cookery. Columbia, S.C, USA: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-5700-3000-6. ^{[page needed]}
4. ^ ^{a b} Curiosities of I-5, facts about King and the benefits of volunteers Chester Progressive, Jan 16, 2008.
5. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: Tomato
6. ^ Donnelly, Laura (October 26, 2008). ^[dead link] "Killer Tomatoes". The East Hampton Star. http://www.easthamptonstar.com/dnn/Archive/Home20080814/FoodWine/Seasons/tabid/6280/Default.aspx^{[dead link]}. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 
7. ^ "British Consuls in Aleppo – Your Archives". Yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk. 2009-01-26. http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=British_Consuls_in_Aleppo. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
8. ^ Syria under the last five Turkish Sultans, Appletons' journal, Published by D. Appleton and Co., 1876, p. 519
9. ^ The Friend, 1881, p. 223
10. ^ "C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center". Tgrc.ucdavis.edu. http://tgrc.ucdavis.edu/. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
11. ^ "UC Newsroom, UC Davis Tomato Geneticist Charles Rick Dies at 87. (2002-05-08)". Universityofcalifornia.edu. 2002-05-08. http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/article/4319. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
12. ^ [1] Dry farming's advantage
13. ^ ^{a b c} Arthur Allen (August 2008). "A Passion for Tomatoes". http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved December 11, 2009. 
14. ^ Hartz, T. et al. Processing Tomato Production in California. UC Vegetable Research and Information Center.
15. ^ FAOSTAT, Crop statistics
16. ^ http://www.therafoundation.org/articles/history/santorinifromlate19centuryto1956
17. ^ Tomato-Tobacco Mosaic Virus Disease Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved June 30, 2006.
18. ^ Slugs in Home Gardens Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved July 14, 2006.
19. ^ J. Narvaez-Vasquez and M. L. Orozco-Cardenas. Systemins and AtPeps: Defense-related peptide signals, (2008) Chapter 15 Induced Plant Resistance to Herbivory. ISBN 978-1-4020-8181-1
20. ^ http://www.motherearthnews.com/organic-gardening/carrots-love-tomatoes-companion-planting-for-a-healthy-garden-zb0z11zbug.aspx
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22. ^ Redenbaugh, Keith, Bill Hiatt, Belinda Martineau, Matthew Kramer, Ray Sheehy, Rick Sanders, Cathy Houck and Don Emlay (1992). Safety Assessment of Genetically Engineered Fruits and Vegetables: A Case Study of the Flavr Savr Tomato. CRC Press. p. 288. 
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24. ^ "No magic tomato? Study breaks link between lycopene and prostate cancer prevention". http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-05/aafc-nmt051607.php. Retrieved 2007-05-24. 
25. ^ "Tomato dishes 'may protect skin'". BBC News. 2008-04-28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7370759.stm. Retrieved 2010-01-06. 
26. ^ Evangelia Mourvaki, Stefania Gizzi, Ruggero Rossi, Stefano Rufini,"Passionflower Fruit—A "New" Source of Lycopene?", Journal of Medicinal Food. Spring 2005: 104-106.
27. ^ Zhang CX, Ho SC, Chen YM, Fu JH, Cheng SZ, Lin FY (July 2009). "Greater vegetable and fruit intake is associated with a lower risk of breast cancer among Chinese women". International Journal of Cancer 125 (1): 181–8. doi:10.1002/ijc.24358. PMID 19358284. 
28. ^ Freedman ND, Park Y, Subar AF, et al. (May 2008). "Fruit and vegetable intake and head and neck cancer risk in a large United States prospective cohort study". International Journal of Cancer 122 (10): 2330–6. doi:10.1002/ijc.23319. PMID 18092323. 
29. ^ Rao AV, Balachandran B (October 2002). "Role of oxidative stress and antioxidants in neurodegenerative diseases". Nutritional Neuroscience 5 (5): 291–309. doi:10.1080/1028415021000033767. PMID 12385592. 
30. ^ Fall PA, Fredrikson M, Axelson O, Granérus AK (January 1999). "Nutritional and occupational factors influencing the risk of Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in southeastern Sweden". Movement Disorders 14 (1): 28–37. doi:10.1002/1531-8257(199901)14:1<28::AID-MDS1007>3.0.CO;2-O. PMID 9918341. 
31. ^ Suganuma H, Hirano T, Arimoto Y, Inakuma T (June 2002). "Effect of tomato intake on striatal monoamine level in a mouse model of experimental Parkinson's disease". Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 48 (3): 251–4. doi:10.3177/jnsv.48.251. PMID 12350086. 
32. ^ Zdeňka Polívková, Petr Šmerák, Hana Demová, Milan Houška "Antimutagenic Effects of Lycopene and Tomato Purée" Journal of Medicinal Food. December 2010, 13(6): 1443-1450.
33. ^ Shidfar F, Froghifar N, Vafa M, Rajab A, Hosseini S, Shidfar S, Gohari M.,"The effects of tomato consumption on serum glucose, apolipoprotein B, apolipoprotein A-I, homocysteine and blood pressure in type 2 diabetic patients." Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2011 May;62(3):289-94
34. ^ ^{a b c d} Canadian Produce Marketing Association > Home Storage Guide for Fresh Fruits & Vegetables Retrieved August 2010
35. ^ ^{a b} Barceloux, Donald G. (2009-06). "Potatoes, Tomatoes, and Solanine Toxicity (Solanum tuberosum L., Solanum lycopersicum L.)". Disease-a-Month 55 (6): 391–402. doi:10.1016/j.disamonth.2009.03.009. PMID 19446683. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B75BF-4W92RY0-F&_user=128590&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000010619&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=128590&md5=915d12d736cf571ed7793e94eec98a4d. 
36. ^ Pittenger, Dennis R. (2002). "Vegetables That Contain Natural Toxins". California Master Gardener Handbook. ANR Publications. pp. 643–4. ISBN 978-1-879906-54-9. http://www.google.com/books?id=WhWjHB1Zjf8C&pg=PA643. Retrieved 2009-07-21. 
37. ^ Mcgee, Harold (2009-07-29). "Accused, Yes, but Probably Not a Killer". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/29/dining/29curi.html. Retrieved 2010-03-26. 
38. ^ Hound health handbook: the definitive guide to keeping your dog happy By Betsy Brevitz page 404
39. ^ "CDC Probes Salmonella Outbreak, Health Officials Say Bacteria May Have Spread Through Some Form Of Produce – CBS News". Cbsnews.com. 2006-10-30. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/30/national/main2138331.shtml. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 
40. ^ "A selection of North American tomato related outbreaks from 1990–2005". Food Safety Network. 2006-10-30. http://www.foodsafety.ksu.edu/en/article-details.php?a=3&c=32&sc=419&id=953. Retrieved 2010-07-20. 
41. ^ "Tomatoes taken off menus". Calgary Herald. 2008-06-11. http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/city/story.html?id=0c30bbc6-5fa0-41c2-9148-f57e622c0cdd. Retrieved 2010-07-20. 
42. ^ Peet, Mary. "Crop Profiles – Tomato". http://www.ncsu.edu/sustainable/profiles/bot_tom.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27. ^{[self-published source?]}
43. ^ paul2101. "Are there different types of tomato leaves?". IVillage. http://faq.gardenweb.com/faq/lists/tomato/2004111539004321.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27. ^{[unreliable source?]}
44. ^ Acquaah, G. (2002). Horticulture: Principles and Practices. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
45. ^ Lycopersicon esculentum, International Plant Name Index
46. ^ Peralta, Iris E.; Spooner, David M. (2001). "Granule-bound starch synthase (GBSSI) gene phylogeny of wild tomatoes (Solanum L. section Lycopersicon [Mill. Wettst. subsection Lycopersicon)"]. American Journal of Botany 88 (10): 1888–1902. doi:10.2307/3558365. JSTOR 3558365. PMID 21669622. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/88/10/1888. 
47. ^ Jacobsen, E.; M. K. Daniel, J. E. M. Bergervoet-van Deelen, D. J. Huigen, M. S. Ramanna (1994-05-01). "The first and second backcross progeny of the intergeneric fusion hybrids of potato and tomato after crossing with potato". TAG Theoretical and Applied Genetics 88 (2): 181–186. doi:10.1007/BF00225895. 
48. ^ Mueller, Lukas. "International Tomato Genome Sequencing Project". Sol Genomics Network. http://solgenomics.net/about/tomato_project_overview.pl. Retrieved 2009-10-21. 
49. ^ Krishna Ramanujan (30 January 2007). "Tomato genome project gets $1.8M". News.cornell.edu. http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Jan07/SolanacaeNSF.kr.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27. 
50. ^ Tomato Genome Shotgun Sequence Prerelease
51. ^ "Vegetarians in Paradise/Tomato History, Tomato Nutrition, Tomato Recipe". Vegparadise.com. http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch8.html. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
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54. ^ ^{a b} Walt Disney World News
55. ^ "Spain's tomato fighters see red". ITV. August 30, 2007. http://itn.co.uk/news/9a5a1671ceba4f43741dc008f237c1ea.html. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
56. ^ About Reynoldsburg, City of Reynoldsburg. Retrieved 2010-27-7.

Further reading

• David Gentilcore. Pomodoro! A History of the Tomato in Italy (Columbia University Press, 2010), scholarly history

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Solanum lycopersicum

Wikispecies has information related to: Solanum lycopersicum

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Tomato

The Wikibook Horticulture has a page on the topic of Tomato

External identifiers for Solanum lycopersicum
EOL	392557
NCBI	4081
Also found in: Wikispecies

• Tomato at National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
• "Solanum lycopersicum". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=521671. 
• Tomato at the Encyclopedia of Life
• Tomato Pests (NCSU) – Overview of the entomological threats to tomato cultivation.
• Tomato Genome Sequencing Project – Sequencing of the twelve tomato chromosomes.
• Solanum lycopersicum L. on Solanaceae Source – Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms previously used to refer to the tomato.
• Tomato core collection database – Phenotypes and images of 7,000 tomato cultivars
• The On-line Tomato Vine (Keith Mueller) – Comprehensive and practical information on growing and breeding tomatoes.
• The case against heirloom tomatoes at Scientific American
• Red menace: How the ‘strange and horrible’ tomato conquered Italy, and America at The Boston Globe
• Tomato from seeds: A complete start to finish guide written by James Cairns
• Paul Lunde, New World Foods, Old World Diet, 1992, Saudi Aramco World

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Common misspelling(s) of tomatoes

• tomatos

Dansk (Danish)
n. - tomat

Nederlands (Dutch)
tomaat(plant), tomaat

Français (French)
n. - tomate

Deutsch (German)
n. - Tomate

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - ντομάτα, ντοματιά

Italiano (Italian)
pomodoro

Português (Portuguese)
n. - tomateiro (m), tomate (m), garota jovem atraente (f)

Русский (Russian)
помидор, (амер. сл.) (о женщине) "ягодка", краля

Español (Spanish)
n. - tomate

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - tomat

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
番茄, 女人

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 番茄, 女人

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 토마토, 토마토 색, 매춘부

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - トマト

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) بندورة, طماطم‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮עגבניה‬

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