Turkey

(Click to enlarge)

Turkey

(Mapping Specialists, Ltd.)

(tûr'kē)

A country of southwest Asia and southeast Europe between the Mediterranean and the Black seas. The region was dominated by many ancient civilizations and peoples, among them the Hittites (1800 B.C.), the Greeks (8th century B.C.), and the Persians (6th century B.C.), and in A.D. 395 it became part of the Byzantine Empire. The area was conquered by the Ottoman Turks between the 13th and 15th centuries and remained the core of the Ottoman Empire for more than 600 years. Its modern history dates to the rise of the Young Turks (after 1908) and the collapse of the empire in 1918. Under the leadership of Kemal Atatürk, a republic was proclaimed in 1923. Ankara is the capital and Istanbul the largest city. Population: 71,200,000.

View more Travel videos

For more information on Turkey, visit Britannica.com.

News of photography's invention reached Istanbul within months of its announcement in Paris in 1839, and soon afterwards photographers arrived from Europe to set up businesses there. In 1845, for example, the Italian Carlo Naya advertised his inexpensive photographic portraits in an Ottoman newspaper. The Crimean War brought Robert Fenton to the Ottoman Empire and focused increased attention on the work of James Robertson, chief engraver at the Ottoman Mint, who also opened a photographic studio in Pera in the mid-1850s.

The burgeoning tourist market was the primary driving force behind the numbers of photographers who established themselves in the major cities of the empire. (Photography reached rural areas much more slowly, and this account relates mostly to the urban scene.) Before the advent of roll-film cameras, most tourists documented their travels by purchasing the work of commercial photographers, either as single images or in albums. Guidebooks directed travellers to the best shops for different kinds of photograph, and by 1900 Istanbul commercial directories listed 65 photographers active in the city, mostly in Pera, the district where many European-owned businesses were located. While some of these operators were Europeans, others were local residents who had established successful studios, for example, Sébah & Jollier (or Joaillier) and Abdullah Frères, which catered for local inhabitants as well as tourists. Commercial images produced for the tourist market included views of important architectural monuments, both ancient and contemporary, street scenes, landscapes, and photographs of local residents, often categorized by occupation or ethnicity. This body of images, from Turkey and elsewhere, has been the subject of intense scrutiny in recent years by scholars interested in using the photographs to understand the complex political, economic, and cultural relationships between the European powers and other regions in this period.

Istanbul, as the imperial capital and a popular tourist destination, had a large population of resident and more transient Europeans, with a well-developed commercial network to serve their needs and to provide goods and services for the increasing number of Ottoman subjects who desired them. As a result, Istanbul residents had easy access to information about photography, to photographers, and to the technology itself. Ottomans quickly became conversant with the new medium, with training in photography provided at the Imperial School of Engineers, the military forerunner of the present-day Istanbul Technical University, and the Academy of Fine Arts. Amateur Ottoman photographers began taking their own pictures, and in so doing took control of the manner in which they were represented photographically.

Ottoman consumers of photographs were primarily interested in portraits of themselves and their families. Photographic portraiture of a kind very similar to what was being done by commercial studios in 19th-century London, Paris, or Boston found a ready market. Popular formats included the cartes de visite and cabinet portraits popular elsewhere, as well as larger ones; and pictures were often arranged in albums. The accessibility of studios and cheapness of portraits opened the medium to those who could not have afforded paintings. These new opportunities for self-presentation are particularly striking with regard to women's portraits. Before the advent of photography, representations of women were not common; however, in the last decades of the 19th century Ottoman women from various classes appeared in photographic and painted portraits, signalling significant changes in their social roles. Yet although 19th-century Ottoman portraits often look identical to portraits of the same period from Europe or North America, formal similarities tend to belie great differences in the social circumstances of subjects and the nature of relationships: wedding photographs, whose conventions of setting and posture closely resembled European ones, are a notable example.

Well established by the turn of the century, photography continued to be important in 20th-century Turkey, gradually entering the curriculum at art schools, technical institutes, and universities throughout the country. Photojournalism came of age at mid-century with the founding of the first photo press agency, Basin-Foto, the appearance of the first newspaper with staff photographers, Yeni Istanbul, and the launch of Hayat (Life) magazine. The Association of Turkish Photojournalists was established in 1957. Well-known Turkish journalists include Cemal Işiksel, called the ‘Atatürk Photographer’ because of his extensive documentation of Atatürk's activities, Ara Güler, and Sami Güner. Photojournalism in Turkey has remained significant; Turkish newspaper readers were accustomed to seeing full-colour photographs in their papers a full decade before they began to be used sparingly in the North American press. Photography as an art form has been slower to gain widespread acceptance. However, there are numerous galleries in the larger cities which frequently exhibit the work of Turkish photographers, and photographers, among them Gültekin Çizgen and Mehmet Bayhan, have worked hard to encourage contemporary photography. Younger Turkish photographers, Cemil Ağacikoğlu, Coşkun Aral, Ahmet Öner Gezgin, and Tahir Ün, to name only a few, working in a range of styles and techniques, have achieved international reputations through their participation in the international art world and its publications.

Abdullah FreresStudents and teachers with skeletonsand a cadaver, Civil Medical School, Constantinople (Istanbul), c.1880-93.Albumen print

— Nancy Micklewright

Bibliography

• Çizgen, E., Photography in the Ottoman Empire 1839-1919 (1987).
• Beauge, G., et al., Images d'empire: aux origines de la photographie en Turquie/Türkiye'de fotoğrafin öncüleri (1993).
• Micklewright, N., ‘Personal, Public and Political (Re)Constructions: Photographs and Consumption’, in D. Quataert (ed.), Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1922 (2000)

Before the Second World War, theatrical dance in Turkey was restricted to appearances by foreign dance companies. Following a visit by Ninette de Valois, a national ballet school was set up in Istanbul in 1948, with Joy Newton as director. In 1950 it was moved to the Ankara State Conservatory. In 1960 the company, today known as the Ankara State Ballet, staged its first professional performance; Robert Harrold's production of Manuel de Falla's El amor brujo featured an all Turkish cast. Lorna Mossford staged the first production of The Sleeping Beauty in Turkey in 1963. De Valois contributed several works to the repertoire in the 1960s, including Cesmebast (At the Fountain), which used a score by the Turkish composer Ferit Tuzun, and Sinfonietta, with music by Nevit Kodali. Richard Glasstone (director 1965-9) staged Sylvia and Prince of the Pagodas, as well as Hancerli Hanim (The Lady with the Dagger), which took as its theme a famous tale of love, jealousy, and murder in 17th-century Istanbul. In 1968 the company performed the first ballet by a native choreographer, Sait Sokmen. The ballet, called Cark (The Wheel), was an abstract work set to Ravel's String Quartet. It helped to pave the way for other Turkish choreographers. In 1970 a second company was founded, called the Istanbul State Ballet. Contemporary dance in Turkey is represented by Modern Dance Turkey, a company based in Ankara, founded in 1993.

---

Modern republic formed from the central regions of the Ottoman Empire.

The Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) was established in 1923. Its government was an authoritarian, one-party state until 1946, when the first competitive elections were held. In subsequent decades there have been three military coups, and one instance of military pressure that forced a civilian government to resign.

According to the 2000 census, Turkey's population was 67,844,903, an increase of 18.34 percent over the population of 56,473,035 enumerated in October 1990. In 2000 the population distribution was 65 percent urban and 35 percent rural.

The total area of Turkey is 300,948 square miles (779,456 sq. km). The Asian portion of Turkey, Anatolia (historically Asia Minor), comprises 291,773 square miles (755,693 sq. km), or about 97 percent of the total; the section located on the European continent totals 9,175 square miles (23,763 sq. km). The European portion of Turkey is separated from the Asian by the Sea of Marmara, which in turn is connected to two larger bodies of water by two narrow straits. In the northeast, the Bosporus Strait connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, while in the southwest, the Dardanelles Strait connects it to the Aegean Sea. Turkey borders the Aegean Sea and Greece on the west, Bulgaria on the northwest, the Black Sea on the north, Georgia on the northeast, Armenia on the east, Iran and Iraq on the southeast, and Syria and the Mediterranean Sea on the south.

The capital of Turkey, Ankara, is located in the central Anatolian plains; a small market town in 1923, Ankara today is home to more than 3.5 million people. The largest city, Istanbul, straddles the European and Asian sides of Turkey and has a population of 9.1 million. An important historical city, Istanbul (formerly Byzantium, then Constantinople) was first the capital of the Byzantine Empire and later the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Today, it is the cultural and business capital of Turkey. The third-largest city is İzmir (English, Smyrna), a major industrial center with a population of 2 million. Other major cities, each with populations over 1 million, include Adana, Bursa, and Konya.

Geographically, Turkey consists of a ring of mountains that enclose a series of plateaus that lie between 2,625 and 6,560 feet (800 and 2,000 m) above sea level. The highest mountains are in the east, with Mount Ararat reaching 16,945 feet (5,165 m). In the west, the highest mountain, Mount Erciyas, reaches 12,800 feet (3,900 m). The coastal regions on the south, west, and north are extremely narrow. Most of the coastal regions receive adequate rainfall; as much as 100 inches (254 cm) falls annually on the eastern Black Sea coast, and almost as much on the Aegean coast. The central plateau, on the other hand, is sheltered by its ring of mountains and receives little rainfall, generally under 10 inches (250 mm) annually. There are extensive expanses of arid steppe and even desert. Turkey's two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, are both in the east. There are many lakes, both salt and freshwater; the largest is Lake Van, which covers 1,100 square miles (2,850 sq. km). Climate in the central plain ranges from severe winters with temperatures often dropping to minus 22 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 30 degrees Celsius) to hot and dry summers, with temperatures ranging from highs of 85 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit (30 to 43 degrees Celsius) in the southeast. In the western region, winters are relatively mild, hovering around freezing, and summers are hot. The Aegean coast is mild in winter and temperate in summer.

Turkey is divided into seventy-three provinces, each administered by a governor. According to the
1982 constitution, legislative power is vested in a unicameral Grand National Assembly composed of 400 deputies elected by universal adult suffrage and serving five-year terms. In 1987 the number of deputies was raised to 450. Executive power is vested in the office of the prime minister and in the office of the president, who is elected to a seven-year term by the assembly. Although the prime minister heads the government, the president has the power to appoint a prime minister, senior civil servants, and senior members of the judiciary; submit constitutional amendments for popular referenda; challenge the constitutionality of laws by submitting them to the constitutional court; call for new elections; declare martial law; and order the armed forces into action domestically or internationally. In addition, the National Security Council - composed of the president; prime minister; chief of staff; heads of the army, navy, air force, and police; and
ministers of interior, foreign affairs, and defense - has the power to present compulsory orders to the government in matters of national security.

There are no official census data on the ethnic, religious, and linguistic composition of the population of Turkey. The majority of Turks are native Turkish speakers. Ethnically, they trace their roots back to central Asia, although many Turks are Caucasians, particularly Circassians and Georgians. There is also a significant population of Kurds, a people of Indo-European descent who speak Kurdish, a language closely related to Persian. Kurds comprise an estimated 15 to 20 percent of Turkey's total population. Kurds are concentrated in the east and southeast and along the Syrian and Iraqi borders, but significant numbers have migrated to major cities in western Turkey. A large number of Arabs inhabit the region of Hatay, a small territory formerly part of Syria but ceded by the French to Turkey in 1939. The large populations of Greeks and Armenians in the nineteenth century were reduced by war and deportations during and after World War I to relatively small numbers living in Istanbul: roughly 6,000 Greeks and 60,000 Armenians. The vast majority of Turkish citizens are Muslim. Most Kurds and Turks are Sunni Muslims, but an estimated 20 to 30 percent of the population are Shiʿite Muslims, primarily of the Alevi sect. There are also small numbers of Jews (22,000), Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Assyrian Christians.

Agriculture and Industry

Turkey's major agricultural products are cereals, cotton, tobacco, grapes, figs, olives, hazelnuts, oil-seeds, and tea. Until 1980 agricultural products, particularly cotton, provided the bulk of exports. Despite continued government attention to raising agricultural output, growth has been slow, limited by the lack of irrigated land and the low rainfall on the central plateau. Only about one-third of all land is cultivated, mostly on family-size plots, with larger farms in the coastal regions. Agriculture provides about 20 percent of the gross national product.

The Turkish government initiated a strategy of state-led industrialization in the 1930s, when a series of public enterprises were established. After 1950 increasing support was given to the private sector, so that by 1970, private-sector industrial output and investment was almost equal to that of the public sector. In 1980 the government launched a program of liberalization, designed to diminish state economic intervention and increase the role of market forces. Since 1987 the government has been privatizing some state economic enterprises, though progress has been slow. The largest industry is textiles, providing about one-third of output and export earnings. Turkey's production and export of iron and steel have increased rapidly, as has production of cement and paper products. Motor vehicle production began in the 1950s but consists mostly of assembly industries; because production has been spread out over a large number of small plants, production costs are high and exports have been negligible. Turkey's petrochemical industry produces fertilizers and a range of industrial inputs.
Other manufacturing industries include tobacco, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, glassware, and engineering.

Turkey has a large mining industry, mostly in the public sector, employing over 200,000 workers. Important mineral resources include bauxite, borax, chromium, copper, iron ore, manganese, and sulfur. The center of coal mining is at Zonguldak, on the Black Sea coast. Oil was discovered in 1950 in the southeast, but production is limited, accounting for about 10 percent of domestic consumption; the remainder is imported. In 1990 petroleum products accounted for about 15 percent of all imports. Of Turkey's natural mineral resources, only borates and petroleum products are exported, in small quantities.

Imperial History

Urban culture in Asia Minor dates to the second millennium B.C.E. In 330 C.E., the Roman emperor Constantine founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul), which became the capital of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire. In the eleventh century, Ghuzz Turks who had established the Seljuk empire in the area that is today Iran and Iraq began to migrate into Anatolia, conquering territory from the Byzantine Empire. By the thirteenth century, independent princedoms were established in Anatolia, including the principality of the House of Osman, or Othman, in the northwest. Over the next several centuries, the Ottoman (from Othman) Empire conquered all of the Byzantine Empire, capturing Constantinople in 1453, as well as much of eastern Europe and the Middle East.

By the year 1800, however, several European states as well as the Russian Empire had become stronger than the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the nineteenth century, the government undertook various reform efforts to strengthen the Ottoman military, administration, political organization, and economy in order to meet the competition presented by rivals.

In the course of the nineteenth century, a middle class emerged in the Ottoman Empire. Educated in the new schools of the empire, members of the middle class had a vision of a liberal society ruled by a constitutional government and formed movements to achieve their goal, such as the Young Ottomans and later the Young Turks. These groups alternately were supported by reformist governments or suppressed by autocratic governments. In 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) overthrew Abdülhamit II and restored the constitution. The CUP government initially enjoyed widespread popular support. But subsequent opposition to its modernizing reforms, combined with foreign wars, led the CUP to establish its own dictatorship. In 1914 the CUP formed an alliance with the Central Powers and entered World War I. After four years of fighting a bitter defensive war against the Allies on many fronts, the empire was defeated; Allied armies captured the Middle Eastern territories of Palestine, Syria, and Iraq; and Allied forces occupied Istanbul. On 30 October 1918 the Turks signed an armistice at Mudros.

Birth of the Modern Republic

On 15 May 1919, Greek forces invaded western Turkey, triggering the formation of a new Turkish army that would defeat the Greeks and then establish the modern Turkish republic. The leader of the Turkish war of liberation was Mustafa Kemal, later given the name Atatürk (Turkish: "father of the Turks"). On 23 July 1919 Kemal convened a nationalist congress in Erzurum, delegates to which later issued the National Pact (Mithaq al-Watani), a declaration calling for the dissolution of the empire and control over non-Turkish provinces, the end of foreign occupation, and the independence of all areas inhabited by Turks. Pulling together an army, the independence movement succeeded in defeating the Greek army and negotiating a withdrawal of Allied forces. The Treaty of Mudanya recognizing Turkish sovereignty was signed on 24 July 1923. On 29 October 1923 Turkey was declared a republic with Kemal as its first president and Ankara as its capital.

Modernization

The next two decades were years of reform, as Kemal and his associates attempted to complete the now 100-year-old project of modernizing Turkey. The 1924 constitution created an elected parliament as the sole repository of sovereignty and a presidency exercising executive power. In practice, however, Kemal's government was a dictatorship. A single party, the Republican People's Party (RPP), was formed as the agent of central government rule and control. In 1924 the caliphate, the highest religious office, was abolished, and in 1928 Turkey was declared a secular state. The old legal codes were annulled and replaced with civil and criminal codes adopted from Europe. The fez, the trademark Ottoman headgear adopted in the nineteenth century, was considered a symbol of the old order and was declared illegal, while the Arabic alphabet was replaced with a Roman one.

In 1929, with the onset of the Great Depression and the lapsing of the Treaty of Lausanne, which had imposed a laissez-faire trade policy on Turkey, Kemal launched a program of state-led economic development. Influenced by the Soviet experiment with its five-year development plans, in 1934 the government formulated its own five-year plan for industrial investment. Completed in 1939, the plan introduced heavy industry into Turkey while allowing the country to weather the depression with a trade surplus.

During the 1930s Kemal transformed the RPP on the model of European fascist parties. The distinction between party members and government officials was blurred, as all public officials were expected to work to implement the new ideology of the party. This ideology, officially adopted in 1931 and known as Kemalism, emphasized six themes: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism, secularism, and devrimçilik, which was interpreted by moderates as reformism and by radicals as revolutionism. In 1938 Kemal Atatürk died and was replaced as president by his lieutenant, Ismet Inönü. Although Inönü kept Turkey neutral during World War II, a number of government policies on resource mobilization created widespread economic austerity, alienating large sectors of the population including those businessmen who opposed the policy of state-led economic development.

Political Reforms and Military Coups

The post - World War II period was a new era for the Turkish republic. Responding to the dissatisfaction of wartime economic policies and feeling the need to win American support against Soviet encroachments, Inönü announced the resumption of multiparty politics and competitive elections. There had been two experiments with a second party in the 1920s, but in both cases the opposition party was closed down after a short life. This time, the commitment to political pluralism was greater, and in the general elections of May 1950, the chief opposition, the Democrat Party (DP), won an overwhelming victory. The DP had campaigned on a platform of economic and cultural liberalism and increased political freedoms. Its new economic policies, based on import-substituting industrialization and the encouragement of agriculture, increased the standard of living of wide sectors of the population, particularly peasants. The DP permitted more freedom of religion than the Kemalists, who were militantly hostile to religion. But the DP increased the role of the state in the economy instead of reducing it; as the 1950s passed, the party showed signs of becoming dictatorial. A combination of incipient economic crisis and antidemocratic measures prompted a military coup on 27 May 1960.

The new military rulers formed a thirty-seven-member National Unity Committee (NUC) and convened a constitutional convention, dominated by supporters of the RPP. A new constitution was promulgated in 1961, and it included several liberal provisions. The NUC also allowed political parties to resume their activities. The two principal parties, the RPP - still led by Inönü - and the Justice Party (JP), the successor to the DP, formed a series of short-lived coalition governments, first together, and later between the RPP and several smaller parties, and then the JP with smaller parties. In October 1965 the JP, led by Süleyman Demirel, won a majority. The Turkish economy, now supervised by the State Planning Organization, which issued five-year development plans, grew at a rapid rate during the 1960s. But political instability came from two sources: numerous defections of members from existing parties and the proliferation of smaller parties; and the eruption of street violence as radical students and organizations on the left clashed with extremist students and organizations on the right.

On 12 March 1971 the military leadership accused the government of allowing the country to slip
into anarchy and called for the creation of a stable government. The Demirel government resigned, and subsequently martial law was declared. After martial law was finally lifted in September 1973, Turkey was ruled by a series of weak coalition governments as economic conditions deteriorated. By the end of the decade, the economy was in critical condition; beginning in 1978, political violence once again erupted in the streets. On 12 September 1980 the military intervened for the third time in two decades. All existing political parties were banned, and their members prohibited from engaging in politics. A new constitution, promulgated in 1982, reversed some of the liberal measures of the 1961 constitution by enhancing the authority of the president and the cabinet vis-a-vis parliament and placing restrictions on political activity.

Party Politics

In 1983 elections were held among three new parties. The winning party was the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi; ANAP), led by Turgut Özal, a technocrat who had designed the January 1980 measures. Özal formed a new government and accelerated the strategy of economic liberalization and encouraging exports. Despite some success at economic liberalization, persistent government deficits resulted in high inflation and eroded popular support for the government. New parties emerged to rival ANAP: the True Path Party (TPP; Doğru Yol Partisi), a continuation of the Justice Party, led by Süleyman Demirel after 1987; the Social Democratic Populist Party (Sosyal Demokrat Halkci Parti; SHP), a continuation of the RPP under the leadership of Erdal Inönü, the son of Ismet Inönü; and the Refah Party, the continuation of the National Salvation Party. In 1989 Özal was elected president. In the 1991 elections ANAP, now led by Mesut Yilmaz, came in third, and the top two parties, the TPP and the SHP, formed a coalition government. On 17 April 1993 Özal died, and Demirel replaced him as president. On 13 June 1993 Tansu Çiller, an American-trained economist and former professor at Bosporus University, became the new head of the TPP and prime minister. Çiller was the first woman to serve as prime minister of Turkey.

In the 1995 parliamentary elections, the Refah Party obtained the largest number, but not a majority, of parliamentary seats, the first time an avowedly religious party had done so well since the establishment of the republic more than seventy years earlier. In 1996 Necmeddin Erbakan formed a coalition government, but the military effectively forced him to resign one year later. During the next five years, a series of coalition governments that purposefully excluded Refah and its successor failed to implement programs to deal with the country's economic problems. In the fall 2002 elections, the Justice Party and the Development Party, one of the successor parties to Refah, won an overwhelming majority of parliamentary seats in an election that saw the virtual elimination of ANAP and TTP from politics.

Bibliography

Ahmad, Feroz. The Making of Modern Turkey. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Bianchi, Robert. Interest Groups and Political Development inTurkey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire:The Sublime Porte, 1789 - 1922. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.

Fisher, W. B. The Middle East: A Physical, Social, and RegionalGeography, 7th edition. London: Methuen, 1978.

Tapper, Richard, ed. Islam in Modern Turkey: Religion, Politics, and Literature in a Secular State. London: I. B. Tauris, 1991.

Waldner, David. State Building and Late Development. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.

— DAVID WALDNER
UPDATED BY ERIC HOOGLUND

Republic straddling southeastern Europe and the Middle East, bordered by the Black Sea to the north, Georgia and Armenia to the northeast, Iran to the east, Iraq and Syria to the southeast, the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea to the southwest, and Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest. Ninety-seven percent of the country is in Asia. Ankara is its capital, but Istanbul is its largest city and former imperial capital.

• The Ottoman Empire emerged in Anatolia (the western portion of Asian Turkey) during the thirteenth century and survived until 1918. At its height, during the sixteenth century, the empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to western Algeria and included all of southeastern Europe.
• The declining Ottoman Empire allied with Germany, Austria, and Bulgaria in World War I and suffered disintegration and Greek occupation at the end of the war.
• After the rise of a nationalist movement led by Kemal Ataturk, the Republic of Turkey was established in 1923.
• In 1871, the archaeologist and scholar Heinrich Schliemann discovered the site of ancient Troy on the west coast of Asian Turkey.
• The country's relations with Greece have been characterized by tension and conflict for centuries.
• Turkey has been a member of NATO since 1952.
• Parts of the country were devastated by an earthquake in 2000.
• Turkey has long resisted separatist demands from militant Kurds in the eastern part of the country.

The international dialing code for Turkey is:   90

It is 6:18 PM, February 11, in Turkey.

Turkish Lira

---

Background:

Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks." Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950 election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980), which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984 by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People's Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives. After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGK announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK increased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a member of NATO; it holds a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council from 2009-10. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of the European Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken many reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accession membership talks with the European Union in 2005.

Location:	Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia (that portion of Turkey west of the Bosporus is geographically part of Europe), bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria
Geographic coordinates:	39 00 N, 35 00 E
Map references:	Middle East
Area:	total: 780,580 sq km land: 770,760 sq km water: 9,820 sq km
Area - comparative:	slightly larger than Texas
Land boundaries:	total: 2,648 km border countries: Armenia 268 km, Azerbaijan 9 km, Bulgaria 240 km, Georgia 252 km, Greece 206 km, Iran 499 km, Iraq 352 km, Syria 822 km
Coastline:	7,200 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: 6 nm in the Aegean Sea; 12 nm in Black Sea and in Mediterranean Sea exclusive economic zone: in Black Sea only: to the maritime boundary agreed upon with the former USSR
Climate:	temperate; hot, dry summers with mild, wet winters; harsher in interior
Terrain:	high central plateau (Anatolia); narrow coastal plain; several mountain ranges
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Ararat 5,166 m
Natural resources:	coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, antimony, mercury, gold, barite, borate, celestite (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, pumice, pyrites (sulfur), clay, arable land, hydropower
Land use:	arable land: 29.81% permanent crops: 3.39% other: 66.8% (2005)
Irrigated land:	52,150 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources:	234 cu km (2003)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):	total: 39.78 cu km/yr (15%/11%/74%) per capita: 544 cu m/yr (2001)
Natural hazards:	severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van
Environment - current issues:	water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; concern for oil spills from increasing Bosporus ship traffic
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification
Geography - note:	strategic location controlling the Turkish Straits (Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles) that link Black and Aegean Seas; Mount Ararat, the legendary landing place of Noah's ark, is in the far eastern portion of the country

Population:	76,805,524 (July 2009 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 27.2% (male 10,701,631/female 10,223,260) 15-64 years: 66.7% (male 25,896,326/female 25,327,403) 65 years and over: 6.1% (male 2,130,360/female 2,526,544) (2009 est.)
Median age:	total: 27.7 years male: 27.4 years female: 28.1 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.312% (2009 est.)
Birth rate:	18.66 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate:	6.02 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration rate:	0.56 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Urbanization:	urban population: 69% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 1.9% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 25.78 deaths/1,000 live births male: 26.84 deaths/1,000 live births female: 24.67 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 71.96 years male: 70.12 years female: 73.89 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate:	2.21 children born/woman (2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	less than 0.1%; note - no country specific models provided (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	NA (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	NA
Nationality:	noun: Turk(s) adjective: Turkish
Ethnic groups:	Turkish 80%, Kurdish 20% (estimated)
Religions:	Muslim 99.8% (mostly Sunni), other 0.2% (mostly Christians and Jews)
Languages:	Turkish (official), Kurdish, other minority languages
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 87.4% male: 95.3% female: 79.6% (2004 est.)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):	total: 11 years male: 12 years female: 11 years (2006)
Education expenditures:	4% of GDP (2004)

Country name:	conventional long form: Republic of Turkey conventional short form: Turkey local long form: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti local short form: Turkiye
Government type:	republican parliamentary democracy
Capital:	name: Ankara geographic coordinates: 39 56 N, 32 52 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October
Administrative divisions:	81 provinces (iller, singular - ili); Adana, Adiyaman, Afyonkarahisar, Agri, Aksaray, Amasya, Ankara, Antalya, Ardahan, Artvin, Aydin, Balikesir, Bartin, Batman, Bayburt, Bilecik, Bingol, Bitlis, Bolu, Burdur, Bursa, Canakkale, Cankiri, Corum, Denizli, Diyarbakir, Duzce, Edirne, Elazig, Erzincan, Erzurum, Eskisehir, Gaziantep, Giresun, Gumushane, Hakkari, Hatay, Icel (Mersin), Igdir, Isparta, Istanbul, Izmir (Smyrna), Kahramanmaras, Karabuk, Karaman, Kars, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kilis, Kirikkale, Kirklareli, Kirsehir, Kocaeli, Konya, Kutahya, Malatya, Manisa, Mardin, Mugla, Mus, Nevsehir, Nigde, Ordu, Osmaniye, Rize, Sakarya, Samsun, Sanliurfa, Siirt, Sinop, Sirnak, Sivas, Tekirdag, Tokat, Trabzon (Trebizond), Tunceli, Usak, Van, Yalova, Yozgat, Zonguldak
Independence:	29 October 1923 (successor state to the Ottoman Empire)
National holiday:	Republic Day, 29 October (1923)
Constitution:	7 November 1982; amended 17 May 1987, 1995, 2001, and 2007; note - amendment passed by referendum concerning presidential elections on 21 October 2007
Legal system:	civil law system derived from various European continental legal systems; note - member of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), although Turkey claims limited derogations on the ratified European Convention on Human Rights; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:	chief of state: President Abdullah GUL (since 28 August 2007) head of government: Prime Minister Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN (since 14 March 2003); Deputy Prime Minister Cemil CICEK (since 29 August 2007); Deputy Prime Minister Ali BABACAN (since 1 May 2009); Deputy Prime Minister Bulent ARINC (since 1 May 2009) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the nomination of the prime minister elections: president elected directly for a five-year term (eligible for a second term); prime minister appointed by the president from among members of parliament election results: on 28 August 2007 the National Assembly elected Abdullah GUL president on the third ballot; National Assembly vote - 339 note: in October 2007 Turkish voters approved a referendum package of constitutional amendments including a provision for direct presidential elections
Legislative branch:	unicameral Grand National Assembly of Turkey or Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi (550 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: last held on 22 July 2007 (next to be held in November 2012) election results: percent of vote by party - AKP 46.7%, CHP 20.8%, MHP 14.3%, independents 5.2%, and other 13.0%; seats by party - AKP 341, CHP 112, MHP 71, independents 26; note - seats by party as of 31 January 2009 - AKP 340, CHP 97, MHP 70, DTP 21, DSP 13, ODP 1, BBP 1, independents 5, vacant 2 (DTP entered parliament as independents; DSP entered parliament on CHP's party list); only parties surpassing the 10% threshold are entitled to parliamentary seats
Judicial branch:	Constitutional Court; High Court of Appeals (Yargitay); Council of State (Danistay); Court of Accounts (Sayistay); Military High Court of Appeals; Military High Administrative Court
Political parties and leaders:	Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party) or Anavatan [Erkan MUMCU]; note - True Path Party or DYP has merged with the Motherland Party; Democratic Left Party or DSP [Zeki SEZER]; Democratic Society Party or DTP [Ahmet TURK]; Felicity Party or SP [Numan KURTULMUS] (sometimes translated as Contentment Party); Freedom and Solidarity Party or ODP [Hayri KOZANOGLU]; Grand Unity Party or BBP; note - Mushin YAZICIOGLU, former leader of the Grand Unity Party was killed in an March 2009 helicopter crash; Justice and Development Party or AKP [Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN]; Nationalist Movement Party or MHP [Devlet BAHCELI] (sometimes translated as Nationalist Action Party); People's Rise Party (Halkin Yukselisi Partisi) or HYP [Yasar Nuri OZTURK]; Republican People's Party or CHP [Deniz BAYKAL]; Social Democratic People's Party or SHP [Ugur CILASUN (acting)]; Young Party or GP [Cem Cengiz UZAN] note: the parties listed above are some of the more significant of the 49 parties that Turkey had as of 31 January 2009
Political pressure groups and leaders:	Confederation of Public Sector Unions or KESK [Sami EVREN]; Confederation of Revolutionary Workers Unions or DISK [Suleyman CELEBI]; Independent Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association or MUSIAD [Omer Cihad VARDAN]; Moral Rights Workers Union or Hak-Is [Salim USLU]; Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions or TISK [Tugurl KUDATGOBILIK]; Turkish Confederation of Labor or Turk-Is [Mustafa KUMLU]; Turkish Confederation of Tradesmen and Craftsmen or TESK [Dervis GUNDAY]; Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association or TUSIAD [Arzuhan Dogan YALCINDAG]; Turkish Union of Chambers of Commerce and Commodity Exchanges or TOBB [M. Rifat HISARCIKLIOGLU]
International organization participation:	ADB (nonregional member), Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CE, CERN (observer), EAPC, EBRD, ECO, EU (applicant), FAO, G-20, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Nabi SENSOY chancery: 2525 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 612-6700 FAX: [1] (202) 612-6744 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador James F. JEFFREY embassy: 110 Ataturk Boulevard, Kavaklidere, 06100 Ankara mailing address: PSC 93, Box 5000, APO AE 09823 telephone: [90] (312) 455-5555 FAX: [90] (312) 467-0019 consulate(s) general: Istanbul consulate(s): Adana; note - there is a Consular Agent in Izmir
Flag description:	red with a vertical white crescent (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening

Economy - overview:	Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry and commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that still accounts for more than 35% of employment. It has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. The largest industrial sector is textiles and clothing, which accounts for one-third of industrial employment; it faces stiff competition in international markets with the end of the global quota system. However, other sectors, notably the automotive and electronics industries, are rising in importance within Turkey's export mix. Real GNP growth has exceeded 6% in many years, but this strong expansion has been interrupted by sharp declines in output in 1994, 1999, and 2001. The economy turned around with the implementation of economic reforms, and 2004 GDP growth reached 9%, followed by roughly 5% annual growth from 2005-07. Due to global contractions, annual growth is estimated to have fallen to 3.5% in 2008. Inflation fell to 7.7% in 2005 - a 30-year low - but climbed back to 8.5% in 2007. Despite the strong economic gains from 2002-07, which were largely due to renewed investor interest in emerging markets, IMF backing, and tighter fiscal policy, the economy is still burdened by a high current account deficit and high external debt. Further economic and judicial reforms and prospective EU membership are expected to boost foreign direct investment. The stock value of FDI currently stands at about $85 billion. Privatization sales are currently approaching $21 billion. Oil began to flow through the Baku-Tblisi-Ceyhan pipeline in May 2006, marking a major milestone that will bring up to 1 million barrels per day from the Caspian to market. In 2007 and 2008, Turkish financial markets weathered significant domestic political turmoil, including turbulence sparked by controversy over the selection of former Foreign Minister Abdullah GUL as Turkey's 11th president and the possible closure of the Justice and Development Party (AKP). Economic fundamentals are sound, marked by moderate economic growth and foreign direct investment. Nevertheless, the Turkish economy may be faced with more negative economic indicators in 2009 as a result of the global economic slowdown. In addition, Turkey's high current account deficit leaves the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in investor confidence.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$906.5 billion (2008 est.) $893.1 billion (2007) $853.8 billion (2006) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate):	$798.9 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	1.5% (2008 est.) 4.6% (2007 est.) 6.9% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):	$12,000 (2008 est.) $11,900 (2007 est.) $11,600 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 8.5% industry: 28.6% services: 62.9% (2008 est.)
Labor force:	23.21 million note: about 1.2 million Turks work abroad (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 29.5% industry: 24.7% services: 45.8% (2005)
Unemployment rate:	7.9% plus underemployment of 4% (2008 est.)
Population below poverty line:	20% (2002)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: 2% highest 10%: 34.1% (2003)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:	43.6 (2003)
Investment (gross fixed):	21% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $164.6 billion expenditures: $176.3 billion (2008 est.)
Fiscal year:	calendar year
Public debt:	37.1% of GDP (2008 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	10.2% (2008 est.)
Central bank discount rate:	25% (31 December 2007)
Stock of money:	$64.43 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi money:	$254.3 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit:	$358.1 billion (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares:	$286.6 billion (31 December 2007)
Agriculture - products:	tobacco, cotton, grain, olives, sugar beets, hazelnuts, pulse, citrus; livestock
Industries:	textiles, food processing, autos, electronics, mining (coal, chromite, copper, boron), steel, petroleum, construction, lumber, paper
Industrial production growth rate:	4% (2008 est.)
Electricity - production:	181.6 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - consumption:	141.5 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - exports:	2.576 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - imports:	863 million kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - production by source:	fossil fuel: 79.3% hydro: 20.4% nuclear: 0% other: 0.3% (2001)
Oil - production:	42,800 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - consumption:	676,600 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - exports:	114,600 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - imports:	714,100 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - proved reserves:	300 million bbl (1 January 2008 est.)
Natural gas - production:	893 million cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:	36.6 billion cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - exports:	31 million cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - imports:	35.83 billion cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:	8.495 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.)
Current account balance:	-$51.68 billion (2008 est.)
Exports:	$141.8 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Exports - commodities:	apparel, foodstuffs, textiles, metal manufactures, transport equipment
Exports - partners:	Germany 11.2%, UK 8.1%, Italy 7%, France 5.6%, Russia 4.4%, Spain 4.3% (2007)
Imports:	$204.8 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Imports - commodities:	machinery, chemicals, semi-finished goods, fuels, transport equipment
Imports - partners:	Russia 13.8%, Germany 10.3%, China 7.8%, Italy 5.9%, US 4.8%, France 4.6% (2007)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:	$82.82 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Debt - external:	$294.3 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:	$124.8 billion (2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:	$13.97 billion (2008 est.)
Currency (code):	Turkish lira (TRY); old Turkish lira (TRL) before 1 January 2005
Currency code:	TRL, YTL
Exchange rates:	Turkish liras (TRY) per US dollar - 1.3179 (2008 est.), 1.319 (2007), 1.4286 (2006), 1.3436 (2005), 1.4255 (2004) note: on 1 January 2005 the old Turkish lira (TRL) was converted to new Turkish lira (TRY) at a rate of 1,000,000 old to 1 new Turkish lira; on 1 January 2009 the Turkish government dropped the word "new" and the currency is now called simply the Turkish lira

Telephones - main lines in use:	18.413 million (2007)
Telephones - mobile cellular:	61.976 million (2007)
Telephone system:	general assessment: comprehensive telecommunications network undergoing rapid modernization and expansion especially in mobile-cellular services domestic: additional digital exchanges are permitting a rapid increase in subscribers; the construction of a network of technologically advanced intercity trunk lines, using both fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay, is facilitating communication between urban centers; remote areas are reached by a domestic satellite system; the number of subscribers to mobile-cellular telephone service is growing rapidly international: country code - 90; international service is provided by the SEA-ME-WE-3 submarine cable and by submarine fiber-optic cables in the Mediterranean and Black Seas that link Turkey with Italy, Greece, Israel, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia; satellite earth stations - 12 Intelsat; mobile satellite terminals - 328 in the Inmarsat and Eutelsat systems (2002)
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 16, FM 107, shortwave 6 (2001)
Radios:	11.3 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:	635 (plus 2,934 repeaters) (1995)
Televisions:	20.9 million (1997)
Internet country code:	.tr
Internet hosts:	2.667 million (2008)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):	50 (2001)
Internet users:	13.15 million (2006)

Airports:	103 (2008)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 90 over 3,047 m: 16 2,438 to 3,047 m: 33 1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 914 to 1,523 m: 19 under 914 m: 3 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways:	total: 13 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 4 (2008)
Heliports:	18 (2007)
Pipelines:	gas 7,555 km; oil 3,636 km (2008)
Railways:	total: 8,697 km standard gauge: 8,697 km 1.435-m gauge (1,920 km electrified) (2006)
Roadways:	total: 426,951 km (includes 1,987 km of expressways) (2006)
Waterways:	1,200 km (2008)
Merchant marine:	total: 612 by type: bulk carrier 101, cargo 281, chemical tanker 70, combination ore/oil 1, container 35, liquefied gas 7, passenger 4, passenger/cargo 51, petroleum tanker 31, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 28, specialized tanker 2 foreign-owned: 8 (Cyprus 2, Germany 1, Greece 1, Italy 3, UAE 1) registered in other countries: 595 (Albania 1, Antigua and Barbuda 6, Bahamas 8, Belize 15, Cambodia 26, Comoros 8, Dominica 5, Georgia 14, Greece 1, Isle of Man 2, Italy 1, Kiribati 1, Liberia 7, Malta 176, Marshall Islands 50, Moldova 3, Netherlands 1, Netherlands Antilles 10, Panama 94, Russia 80, Saint Kitts and Nevis 35, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 20, Sierra Leone 15, Slovakia 10, Tuvalu 2, UK 2, unknown 2) (2008)
Ports and terminals:	Aliaga, Diliskelesi, Izmir, Kocaeli (Izmit), Mercin Limani, Nemrut Limani

Military branches:	Turkish Armed Forces (TSK): Turkish Land Forces (Turk Kara Kuvvetleri), Turkish Naval Forces (Turk Deniz Kuvvetleri; includes naval air and naval infantry), Turkish Air Force (Turk Hava Kuvvetleri) (2009)
Military service age and obligation:	20 years of age (2004)
Manpower available for military service:	males age 16-49: 20,213,205 females age 16-49: 19,432,688 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:	males age 16-49: 17,223,506 females age 16-49: 16,995,299 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually:	male: 692,592 female: 663,689 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures:	5.3% of GDP (2005 est.)
Military - note:	a "National Security Policy Document" adopted in October 2005 increases the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) role in internal security, augmenting the General Directorate of Security and Gendarmerie General Command (Jandarma); the TSK leadership continues to play a key role in politics and considers itself guardian of Turkey's secular state; in April 2007, it warned the ruling party about any pro-Islamic appointments; despite on-going negotiations on EU accession since October 2005, progress has been limited in establishing required civilian supremacy over the military; primary domestic threats are listed as fundamentalism (with the definition in some dispute with the civilian government), separatism (the Kurdish problem), and the extreme left wing; Ankara strongly opposed establishment of an autonomous Kurdish region; an overhaul of the Turkish Land Forces Command (TLFC) taking place under the "Force 2014" program is to produce 20-30% smaller, more highly trained forces characterized by greater mobility and firepower and capable of joint and combined operations; the TLFC has taken on increasing international peacekeeping responsibilities, and took charge of a NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) command in Afghanistan in April 2007; the Turkish Navy is a regional naval power that wants to develop the capability to project power beyond Turkey's coastal waters; the Navy is heavily involved in NATO, multinational, and UN operations; its roles include control of territorial waters and security for sea lines of communications; the Turkish Air Force adopted an "Aerospace and Missile Defense Concept" in 2002 and has initiated project work on an integrated missile defense system; Air Force priorities include attaining a modern deployable, survivable, and sustainable force structure, and establishing a sustainable command and control system (2008)

Disputes - international:	complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Greece in the Aegean Sea; status of north Cyprus question remains; Syria and Iraq protest Turkish hydrological projects to control upper Euphrates waters; Turkey has expressed concern over the status of Kurds in Iraq; border with Armenia remains closed over Nagorno-Karabakh
Refugees and internally displaced persons:	IDPs: 1-1.2 million (fighting 1984-99 between Kurdish PKK and Turkish military; most IDPs in southeastern provinces) (2007)
Illicit drugs:	key transit route for Southwest Asian heroin to Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, the US - via air, land, and sea routes; major Turkish and other international trafficking organizations operate out of Istanbul; laboratories to convert imported morphine base into heroin exist in remote regions of Turkey and near Istanbul; government maintains strict controls over areas of legal opium poppy cultivation and over output of poppy straw concentrate; lax enforcement of money-laundering controls

---

A Typical Turkish Ramazan Menu Various cheeses Roast lamb or sucuk (spicy sausage) Bulgur Pilavi (cracked wheat pilaf) Pide (Turkish flat bread) Various soups Güllâç (rose-flavored pudding) Baklava (sweet, flaky, nutty pastry)

Recipes

Kaymakli Kuru Kayisi (Cream-Stuffed Apricots)
Pasta with Yogurt-Mint Sauce
Muhallabi (Rice Pudding with Cinnamon)
Naneli Limonata (Lemonade with Mint)
Halva
Köfte (Turkish Meatballs)
Simit (Sesame Rings)
Locum (Turkish Candy)
Bulgur Pilavi (Cracked Wheat Pilaf)
Lokma (Golden Fritters)
Lahmacun (Turkish Pizza)

Geographic and Environmental Setting

The Republic of Turkey consists of Asia Minor, the small area of eastern Turkey in Europe, and a few offshore islands in the Aegean Sea. It has a total area of 780,580 square kilometers (301,384 square miles), which is slightly larger than the state of Texas.

Turkey's landscape is made up of low, rolling hills, the fertile river valleys that open to the Aegean Sea, the warm plains along the Mediterranean Sea, the narrow coastal region along the Black Sea, and the rugged mountain ranges that surround and intersect the high, desert-like Anatolian plateau.

Most of Turkey lies within an earthquake zone, and recurrent tremors are recorded.

History and Food

Turkish cuisine is often regarded as one of the greatest in the world. Its culinary traditions have successfully survived over 1,300 years for several reasons, including its favorable location and Mediterranean climate. The country's position between the Far East and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks gain complete control of major trade routes, and an ideal environment allowed plants and animals to flourish. Such advantages helped to develop and sustain a lasting and influential cuisine.

The Turkish people are descendents of nomadic tribes from Mongolia and western Asia who moved westward and became herdsmen around A.D. 600. Early influence from the Chinese and Persians included noodles and manti, cheese- or meat-stuffed dumplings (similar to the Italian ravioli), often covered in a yogurt sauce. Manti has often been credited with first introducing dolma (stuffed foods) into the Turkish cuisine. The milk and various dairy products that became staple foods for the herdsmen were nearly unused by the Chinese. This difference helped the Turks to establish their own unique diet.

By A.D. 1000, the Turks were moving westward towards richer soil where they grew crops such as wheat and barley. Thin sheets of dough called yufka along with crushed grains were used to create sweet pastries. The Persians introduced rice, various nuts, and meat and fruit stews. In return, the Turks taught them how to cook bulgur wheat. As the Turks moved further westward into Anatolia (present-day Turkey) by 1200, they encountered chickpeas and figs, as well as Greek olive oil and an abundance of seafood.

A heavily influential Turkish cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the beginning of the (Turkish) Ottoman Empire's six hundred-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in olive oil, and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. The empire, eventually spanning from Austria to northern Africa, used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the 1500s, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I (1914–1918) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic, foreign dishes such as French hollandaise sauce and Western fast food chains have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.

See Kaymakli Kuru Kayisi (Cream-Stuffed Apricots) recipe.

See Pasta with Yogurt-Mint Sauce recipe.

See Muhallabi (Rice Pudding with Cinnamon) recipe.

Foods of the Turks

Turkey is one of only seven countries in the world that can produce enough food to feed its people. This advantage gives the Turks access to fresh, locally grown ingredients that help to create some of the freshest dishes available. Contrary to common belief, Turkish cuisine is generally not spicy (though this varies throughout the seven regions). Seasonings and sauces, although frequently used, are simple and light and do not overpower the food's natural taste. The most popular seasonings include dill, mint, parsley, cinnamon, garlic, cumin, and sumac (lemon-flavored red berries of the sumac tree). Yogurt is often used to complement both meat and vegetables dishes.

Rice, wheat, and vegetables are the foundation for Turkish cuisine. Dolma, rice- and meat-stuffed vegetables, is frequently prepared throughout the country, most often with peppers, grape leaves, or tomatoes. The eggplant is the country's most beloved vegetable, with zucchini a popular second and then beans, artichokes, cabbage, particularly when prepared in olive oil. Pilav (pilaf), Turkish rice, is a common filling for dolma, as well as a common side dish. Various grains are used to make pide (flat bread), simit (sesame rings), and börek, a flaky, layered pastry filled with meat or cheese that is often eaten for breakfast.

Turkish meat usually means lamb, the main ingredient to the country's most popular national dish, kebap (skewered grilled meat). The kebap resembles the familiar shish-kebab (onions, tomatoes, and peppers threaded on a skewer between pieces of meat and grilled) commonly eaten in the United States. Patties of seasoned minced meat called köfte are also popular. Most cattle are raised for their milk rather than for beef, and pork is prohibited in the Islamic religion (which nearly all Turks practice). Poultry and seafood, however, are second in popularity for meat-based meals.

See Naneli Limonata (Lemonade with Mint) recipe.

See Halva recipe.

See Köfte (Turkish Meatballs) recipe.

See Simit (Sesame Rings) recipe.

Food for Religious and Holiday Celebrations

Turkey celebrates three kinds of celebrations: national religious holidays, national secular (nonreligious) holidays, and local events and festivals. National Islamic holidays are important to the Turks since 99 percent are of the Islamic faith. To celebrate religious events, special dishes for family and friends are frequently prepared.

The first significant holiday of the Muslim year, Muharrem, takes place on the tenth day of the first lunar month. On this day in history, the grandson of the Prophet Mohammed was martyred and Noah and his family were able to leave the Ark after the floodwaters receded. A thick, sweet pudding called aure (also called Noah's pudding) is traditionally prepared. Its ingredients (fruits, nuts, and grains) are supposedly the same ones that remained on the Ark after it was able to land.

The ninth month marks Ramazan (also known as Ramadan in Arabic countries), a month-long period of fasting in which Muslims refrain from food and drink during daylight hours. Iftar is the meal eaten at the end of each day that breaks the daily fasting period.

Seker Bayrami, or translated as Candy Festival or Festival of Sugar, is a three-day national festival marking the end of Ramazan (also known as Eid al-Fitr in Arabic countries). On this day, elaborate desserts are prepared throughout the country and children visit door to door, asking for sweets. On this special day, lokma (deep-fried batter in syrup) and locum (a popular Turkish candy, also known as Turkish Delight), are commonly distributed to neighborhood children in small tins.

See Locum (Turkish Candy) recipe.

See Bulgur Pilavi (Cracked Wheat Pilaf) recipe.

See Lokma (Golden Fritters) recipe.

Mealtime Customs

Turks enjoy three meals a day. Kahvalti (kah-vall-tuh), or breakfast, is generally a light meal consisting of fresh tomatoes, beyaz (salty cheese), black olives, bread with jam and honey, and an occasional soft-boiled egg. Freshly baked bread and tea are almost always present. Sucuk (a spicy sausage) and pastirma (seasoned beef) are frequently prepared in the wintertime. Those in a hurry often stop at a street cart or büfe (food stand) to grab a quick börek, a flaky, mince- or cheese-filled pastry or simit, a bread ring topped with sesame seeds. Muslims almost never consume pork products, making bacon absent from most menus.

Öyle yemek (oy-leh yem-eck), or lunch, is traditionally a heartier (and warmer) meal than breakfast. Çorbalar, or soups, are served in a variety of ways, most commonly including lentils and various vegetables and meats. Larger lunch items include baked lamb or chicken served with peppers and eggplant, and fresh grilled fish with a side of lemon. Rice and bulgar pilaf dishes are also popular. Lahmacun (lah-mah-jun), Turkish pizza, is popular among children. It consists of a thin crust and a layer of spicy ground lamb and tomato sauce. Tost, a grilled cheese sandwich, will please even the pickiest eater.

Akam yemek (ak-sham yem-eck), or dinner, is the largest meal of the day. Mezeler (or mezze, singular), are "appetizers" served before the main meal. Ironically, most mezeler dishes are large enough to comprise an entire meal by themselves. Salads, soups, pilaf-stuffed fish, and köfte (fried minced meatballs) can leave diners quite full. A meat dish accompanied by starchy vegetables (such as potatoes) typically follows. Seasonal fresh fruits or milky puddings are most often enjoyed for dessert.

Turks, who are extremely hospitable and enjoy company, will welcome even unexpected guests with Turkish coffee. Meals are traditionally served on a large tray, placed on a low table or on the floor. The family and guests sit on cushions on the floor around the prepared foods. To avoid accidentally insulting the host, it is best to not refuse second or third helpings. It is also customary to remove one's shoes at the door and offer a small gift to the host for their generosity.

Restaurants, open markets, and büfe (food stands) offer a wide variety of on-thego snacks, including simit, köfte, seeds and nuts, and seasonal fruit and fruit juice. Patates Firin (baked potato carts) can be found for kumpir (potatoes) topped with lentils, butter, cheese, pickles, and mayonnaise.

See Lahmacun (Turkish Pizza) recipe.

Politics, Economics, and Nutrition

About 2 percent of the population of Turkey are classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 10 percent are underweight, and over one-fifth are stunted (short for their age).

Crops such as wheat, barley, sugar beets, grapes, maize (corn), sunflower seeds, hazelnuts, and oranges are grown on 90% of Turkey's arable land. Crops are sensitive, however, to variations in rainfall and output is often unpredictable. Some years enough is produced for export, while at other times limited rainfall may only produce enough grain to feed the Turkish population. Despite such uncertainty, Turkey is one of the few countries in the world that produces enough food to feed its people. In addition, the adoption of modern machinery has allowed more land to be used for cultivation, helping to increase food production.

Further Study

Books

Ayliffe, Rosie, Marc Dubin, and John Gawthrop. Turkey: The Rough Guide, 3rd edition. London: Rough Guides Ltd., 1997.

Facaros, Dana and Michael Pauls. CadoganGuides: Turkey. Guilford, CT: The Globe Pequot Press, 2000.

Let's Go Publications. Let's Go Turkey. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001.

Peck, Adam and Manja Sachet. Turkey Guide. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Open Road Publishing, 1999.

Robertson, Carol and David. Turkish Cooking: ACulinary Journey through Turkey. Berkeley, CA: Frog, Ltd., 1996.

Salaman, R. The Cooking of Greece and Turkey. Cambridge, England: Martin Books, 1991.

Web Sites

Beltur. [Online] Available http://www.beltur.com.tr/ing/yemek.htm (accessed March 8, 2001).

Cankan Real Estate Agency. [Online] Available http://www.cankan.com/izmir/200tcuisine.htm/ (accessed March 8, 2001).

Cypriot-Turkish Cuisine. [Online] Available http://www.cypnet.com/.ncyprus/cypcuisine/ (accessed March 26, 2001).

GlobalGourmet.com. [Online] Available http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/turkey/ (accessed March 21, 2001).

Istanbul Homepages. [Online] Available http://www.guideistanbul.net/ (accessed March 8, 2001).

Mersina. [Online] Available http://www.mersina.com/food_and_drink/turkish_delights/turkish.htm (accessed March 8, 2001).

Ministry of Tourism, Republic of Turkey. [Online] Available http://www.turizm.gov.ru/cu2.html (accessed March 22, 2001).

Sallysplace.com. [Online] Available http://www.sallys-place.com/ (accessed March 2, 2001).

Story of Turkish Food. [Online] Available http://www.public.asu.edu/~okenes/tr_ye_01.htm (accessed March 2, 2001).

Toto Hostel and Guest House. [Online] Available http://www.totohostel.com/foods-entertainment.htm/ (accessed March 8, 2001).

Turkish Cuisine. [Online] Available http://www.fspronet.com/sheilah/turkish.html (accessed March 21, 2001).

Turkish Cultural Foundation. [Online] Available http://www.turkishculture.org/culinary_arts/food.html (accessed March 21, 2001).

---

It's conjectured that Turkey's winemaking history may go back as far as 6,000 years. The modern wine industry was reborn in the 1920s after being essentially shut down by Islamic traditionalists. Today the main growing areas are central and eastern Anatolia, Trakya, and the area around Izmir on the Aegean coast. Many of the vines are native, and a number of European varieties are grown in Trakya. Native red varieties include Adakarasi, Karasakiz, and Papazkarasi; native white grapes include Apincak (or Yapincak), Beylerce, Emir, and Narince. Imported vines include cabernet sauvignon carignan chardonnay cinsaut, clairette, gamay merlot muscat pinot noir riesling sémillon and sylvaner. Tekal, the state-run monopoly, dominates wine production and has over twenty wine-producing facilities scattered throughout the country. Turkey also has over 100 private wineries.

Korkma, sönmez bu safaklarda yüzen al sancak;
Sönmeden yurdumun üstünde tüten en son ocak.
O benim milletimin yildizidir, parlayacak;
O benimdir, o benim milletimindir ancak.

Catma, kurban olayim, çehreni ey nazli hilal!
Kahraman irkima bir gül! Ne bu siddet, bu celal?
Sana olmaz dökülen kanlarimiz sonra helal...
Hakkidir, hakk'a tapan, milletimin istiklal!

Ben ezelden beridir hür yasadim, hür yasarim.
Hangi çilgin bana zincir vuracakmis? Sasarim!
Kükremis sel gibiyim, bendimi çigner, asarim.
Yirtarim daglari, enginlere sigmam, tasarim.
Garbin afakini sarmissa çelik zirhli duvar,
Benim iman dolu gögsüm gibi serhaddim var.
Ulusun, korkma! Nasil böyle bir imani bogar,
Medeniyet!' dedigin tek disi kalmis canavar?

Arkadas! Yurduma alçaklari ugratma, sakin.
Siper et gövdeni, dursun bu hayasizca akin.
Dogacaktir sana va'dettigi günler hakk'in...
Kim bilir, belki yarin, belki yarindan da yakin.

Bastigin yerleri 'toprak!' diyerekg geçme,tani:
Düsün altinda binlerce kefensiz yatani.
Sen sehit oglusun, incitme, yaziktir, atani:
Verme, dünyalari alsan da, bu cennet vatani.

Kim bu cennet vatanin ugruna olmaz ki feda?
Suheda fiskiracak topragi siksan, suheda!
Cani, canani, bütün varimi alsin da hüda,
Etmesin tek vatanimdan beni dünyada cüda.

Ruhumun senden, ilahi, sudur ancak emeli:
Degmesin mabedimin gögsüne namahrem eli.
Bu ezanlar-ki sahadetleri dinin temeli,
Ebedi yurdumun üstünde benim inlemeli.

O zaman vecd ile bin secde eder -varsa-tasim
, Her cerihamdan, ilahi, bosanip kanli yasim,
Fiskirir ruh-i mücerred gibi yerden na'sim;
O zaman yükselerek arsa deger belki basim.

Dalgalan sen de safaklar gibi ey sanli hilal!
Olsun artik dökülen kanlarimin hepsi helal.
Ebediyen sana yok, irkima yok izmihal:
Hakkidir, hür yasamis, bayragimin hürriyet;
Hakkidir, hakk'a tapan, milletimin istiklal!

For a list of words related to Turkey, see:

• Nations of the World - Turkey: Republic of; in SW Asia and SE Europe; capital Ankara; area 301,381 sq. mi., pop. 56,549,000; Turkish; Muslim; lira

---

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)