Underwater photography

The techniques involved in using photographic equipment underwater. By far the greatest percentage of underwater photography is done within sport-diving limits in the tropical oceans.

Underwater photographers are faced with specific technical challenges. Water is 600 times denser than air and is predominantly blue in color. Depth affects light and creates physiological considerations for the photographer. As a result, underwater photography requires an understanding of certain principles of light beneath the sea.

As in all photography, consideration of the variables of light transmission is crucial to underwater photography. When sunlight strikes the surface of the sea, its quality and quantity change in several ways. As light travels from air to a denser medium, such as water, the light rays are bent (refracted); one result is magnification of underwater objects by one-third as compared to viewing them in air. The magnification effect must be considered when estimating distances underwater, which is critical for both focus and exposure. Light is absorbed when it propagates through water. Variables affecting the level of light penetration include the time of day (affects the angle at which the sunlight strikes the surface of the water); cloud cover; clarity of the water; depth (light is increasingly absorbed with increasing depth); and surface conditions (if the sea is choppy, more light will be reflected off the surface and less light transmitted to the underwater scene). See also Light; Photography; Refraction of waves.

Depth affects not only the quantity of light but also the quality of light. Once light passes from air to water, different wavelengths of its spectrum are absorbed as a function of the color of the water and depth. Even in the clearest tropical sea, water serves as a powerful cyan (blue-green) filter. Natural full-spectrum photographs can be taken only with available light in very shallow depths. In ideal daylight conditions and clear ocean water, photographic film fails to record red at about 15 ft (4.5 m) in depth. Orange disappears at 30 ft (9 m), yellow at 60 ft (18 m), green at 80 ft (24 m), and at greater depth only blue and black are recorded on film. To restore color, underwater photographers must use artificial light. See also Seawater.

The water column between photographer and subject degrades both the resolution of the image and the transmission of artificial light (necessary to restore color). Therefore, the most effective underwater photos are taken as close as possible to the subject, thereby creating the need for a variety of optical tools to capture subjects of various sizes within this narrow distance limitation.

There are two types of underwater cameras—amphibious and housed. Amphibious cameras may be used either underwater or topside, although some lenses are for underwater use only (known as water contact lenses). A housed camera is a conventional above-water camera that has been protected from the damaging effects of seawater by a waterproof enclosure. The amphibious camera is protected by a series of O-rings, primarily located at the lens mount, film loading door, shutter release, and other places where controls are necessary. The O-rings make the system not only resistant to leaks but also impervious to dust or inclement weather when used above water.

Deep-sea underwater photography—approximately 150 ft (35 m)—requires the design and use of special camera and lighting equipment. Watertight cases are required for both camera and light source, and they must be able to withstand the pressure generated by the sea. For each 33 ft (10 m) of depth, approximately one additional atmosphere (∼10² kilopascals) of pressure is exerted. At the greatest ocean depths, about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), a case must be able to withstand 17,600 lb/in.² (1200 kg/cm²). The windows for the lens and electrical seals must also be designed for such pressure to prevent water intrusion.

Auxiliary lighting is required, since daylight is absorbed in both intensity and hue. The camera must be positioned and triggered to render the desired photograph, and the great depths preclude a free-swimming human operator. Operation is often from a cable via sonar sensing equipment or from deep-diving underwater vehicles. Bottom-sensing switches can operate deep-sea cameras for photographing the sea floor, and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) can incorporate both video and still cameras. See also Sonar; Underwater vehicle.

When an observer descends to great depths in a diving vehicle, the camera can assist in documentation by recording what is seen. Furthermore, the visual data will assist in accurate description of the observed phenomena. Elapsed-time photography with a motion picture camera in the sea is important in studying sedimentation deposits caused by tides, currents, and storms. Similarly, the observation of biological activity taken with the elapsed-time camera and then speeded up for viewing may reveal processes that cannot ordinarily be observed. See also Diving; Photography; Underwater television.

Underwater photography is one of the most challenging of all photographic activities. In addition to the technicalities of producing a proficient image, the camera must be kept dry and the photographer must ensure his or her survival in an alien environment. Underwater photography is for some enthusiasts merely a means of recording marine life encountered, but for others it can become a passion, and diving only the means of transport to the underwater studio. Whichever level is aspired to, underwater photography can appear to be a daunting challenge; but with a logical approach to equipment and techniques respectable results can be achieved very quickly.

History

Notwithstanding the problems involved, attempts to take photographs underwater began as early as the middle of the 19th century. In 1856 William Thompson obtained a murky picture of damage to a bridge on the Wey estuary in southern England, about 6 m (20 ft) below the surface. In subsequent decades further efforts were made on both sides of the Atlantic, including an experiment by Eadweard Muybridge in San Francisco Bay in 1875. Contemporary advances in engineering, e.g. bridge building; the development of submersible vehicles; and, perhaps above all, the laying of submarine cables, created a demand for reliable ways of recording objects underwater. (A century later, the offshore oil boom would give a comparable stimulus.) But the earliest sustained progress was achieved by Louis Boutan in the 1890s. Between 1893 and 1899, using a succession of cameras and both natural and artificial lighting, he captured some remarkable images off the Mediterranean coast. In 1899 he obtained clear photographs of underwater vegetation at night, and of a plaque at a depth of 50 m (164 ft), using battery-powered arc lamps in watertight housings. Although Boutan's interests shifted elsewhere, his book, La Photographie sous-marine (1900), and the projection of some of his pictures at the 1900 Paris Exhibition, encouraged further experiments. By 1920, in addition to developments in underwater cinematography, still cameras were being used for a range of applications, from salvage work to the Allied investigation of mines flooded and booby-trapped by the German army. In 1926 the American ichthyologist W. H. Longley and the National Geographic photographer Charles Martin took underwater autochromes in the Caribbean, publishing them in the magazine in January 1927.

In the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s important developments took place in three main areas: exploration of the deep oceans; the invention of aqualung equipment that vastly increased the mobility of divers and photographers at depths down to c.40 m (130 ft); and the creation of stroboscopic lighting systems. A key figure was Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-97), whose books and films kindled public awareness of the underwater environment. He had a long association with Harold Edgerton, who contributed cameras, lighting equipment, and sonar positioning apparatus for expeditions to locations as diverse as the Mediterranean and Lake Titicaca in the Andes. (In 1976 Edgerton took part in a vain attempt to locate the Loch Ness monster; in 1986, an Edgerton-Benthos camera took some of the first still photographs of the rediscovered Titanic.) Cousteau also collaborated with the Belgian Jean de Wouters in developing an underwater 35 mm camera, the Calypsophot, the design for which was bought by Nippon Kogaku and launched in 1963 as the Nikonos.

In the late 20th century, ever-improving equipment, oil exploration, and the growing popularity of leisure diving strongly encouraged underwater photography by both amateurs and professionals. Notable among many outstanding practitioners was Leni Riefenstahl, who learned diving in her seventies and produced two books of tropical underwater photographs, Korallengärten (Coral Gardens; 1978) and Wunder unter Wasser (Underwater Miracle; 1990).

Equipment

Today's would-be underwater photographer must first choose a camera system. This can range from spending a few pounds on a disposable camera for depths of 3-5 m (10-15 ft), or investing £1, 000 or more in a housing for an autofocus SLR system. Between these options are amphibious semi-compact systems produced by Nikon (the Nikonos—though production ceased in 2001) and Sea & Sea (the Motormarine), which offer various lens options for total flexibility. As these cameras do not have reflex viewing, camera-to-subject distance must be estimated and the lens focused accordingly. However, framers and prods can be used to measure subject distance in close-up or macro work, when using accessory lenses and extension tubes; and wide-angle lenses have the advantage of considerable depth of field. SLR systems are bulkier and heavier, but considerably more flexible, offering both a wide choice of lenses and autofocus. From the turn of the 21st century a growing range of underwater digital equipment became available.

Most underwater photographs are lit at least partly by artificial light. This is both to ensure adequate exposure in the sometimes gloomy depths (allowing the use of smaller apertures), and to restore colours largely absorbed by water as distance from the surface increases. Amphibious flashguns are available for either compact cameras or housed SLRs which are compatible with the camera's TTL flash exposure control. A housed camera may be combined with an appropriate (housed) dedicated flashgun to ensure total exposure control and compatibility with matrix metering systems. Amphibious flashguns are available in a variety of power options and with differing beam angles: lower power, narrow beam for close-up and macro, and high power, wide beam for wide-angle photography. Finally, a flexible or jointed arm is needed to attach the flash to the camera system and allow changes of lighting position and angle, dependent on the subject.

To produce successful underwater photographs it is essential to appreciate the physical constraints that working underwater imposes.

Colour absorption

White light or daylight is made up of several colours ranging from the warm end of the spectrum (reds and oranges) to the cool end (blue and green), and water is an efficient filter of light (Fig. 1). It is more efficient at the warm end of the spectrum, and noticeably soaks up red light by a depth of c.10 m (30 ft). Absorption intensifies with increasing depth until very little colour remains. The human brain is able to compensate in part for this colour loss and allow continued recognition of the suppressed colours even if they are less vivid. Colour film, however, is balanced for use in daylight only and cannot compensate; it therefore records only what it ‘sees’. This rule applies not only to increasing depth but also to distance. So, even in only a few feet of water, too great a distance from the subject will result in loss of colour by absorption. To overcome this, the photographer must get as close to the subject as possible; stay shallow if shooting with natural light; or use a flashgun to restore the lost colours. Colour-correcting filters can be used in shallow water, but as these also affect exposure values, flash is the most efficient choice.

Reflection and scatter

Even in a flat calm up to 25 per cent of the sun's light is reflected by the water's surface and this figure increases as conditions become rougher and waves present a variety of angles to reflect the light. Light underwater is also scattered by particles of matter suspended in it. Even the clearest tropical water contains countless minute suspended particles that reflect light from their own surfaces and degrade definition of the image as subject distance increases. An above-surface subject photographed on a misty day would lack definition. Owing to suspended matter these conditions exist permanently underwater, so that the photographer must approach as near to the subject as possible, using a wide-angle or close-up lens to minimize the scatter effect.

Refraction

Light rays are refracted (bent) as they pass from the water through the face-plate of the diver's mask or the flat port of the camera; this has the effect of magnifying what is in vision by about 25 per cent, thus making an object appear to be both larger and closer (Fig. 2a). The magnification also reduces the angle of view that the lens has on land (i.e. there will be less in the picture under water); and with wide-angle lenses refraction will also cause a variety of optical distortions at the edge of the picture. With longer focal length lenses this can be an advantage, particularly when using close-up and macro lenses, as magnification is enhanced. However, wide-angle lenses must be corrected for underwater use by means of a dome port, which restores the correct angle of view and removes the optical distortions (though not the magnification) (Figs 2b and c).

Backscatter

This term refers to reflection of light from the particles suspended in the water between camera and subject (Fig. 3). If the flashgun is positioned close to the camera lens and pointed straight at the subject, much of the light will be reflected back at the lens by these particles, producing a ‘snowstorm’ effect in the final image. The remedy is to position the flashgun above the subject and at an oblique angle, approximately 45 degrees, thus ensuring that any backscatter from the particles is directed at the flash and not the lens. When pointing the flashgun, the photographer must also be aware of the effects of refraction, particularly when working at a distance from the subject. It is important not to aim at the ‘apparent distance’ of the subject, which appears to be closer than it actually is, but about 50 per cent beyond it.

‘O’ rings

Cameras, whether amphibious or housed, require ‘O’ rings as a seal to keep the water out. Part of general camera maintenance and dive preparation is the cleaning and lubrication of the ‘O’ rings in the camera, housing, and flash body. It is often assumed that more silicone grease on the ‘O’ ring will produce a better seal, but this will attract more dirt and debris; the ‘O’ ring should only be lubricated lightly until it shines. As some manufacturers now use silicone-based ‘O’ rings which require more regular greasing to prevent them drying out and shrinking, it is essential to check in the instruction manual whether the material used is silicone or neoprene rubber. When equipment is left unused for long periods the main ‘O’ rings should be removed and stored in plastic bags to prevent them becoming deformed by long-term compression.

Safety

For any dive, safety must be the prime consideration, and it is important to have a reasonable level of experience and proficiency before taking the plunge. Just as in land photography, improving results will come with patience and attention to detail, and perfecting each technique before moving on to the next.

Fig. 1. Colour absorption and reflection

Fig. 2a. Refraction makes it difficult to aim the flash correctly

Fig. 2b. Flat port underwater. When light rays pass from one medium to another, in this case from air to water, rays are refracted or bent. As a result objects appear to be about 25% bigger and closer, and the angle of view of the lens is decreased by approximately the same percentage

Fig. 2c. Dome port underwater. A dome port corrects refraction and maintains the angle of view of the lens

Fig. 3. Backscatter. By keeping the flash above the lens and aiming it at the subject at 45° backscatter (light reflected from suspended particles) will be minimized

— Mark Webster

Bibliography

• Cousteau, J.-Y., The Silent World (1953).
• Howes, C., Images Below (1996).
• Webster, M., Art and Technique of Underwater Photography (1998).
• Edge, M., The Underwater Photographer (1999)

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

Pink Anemonefish hiding in tentacles

Underwater photography is the process of taking photographs while under water. It is usually done while scuba diving, but can be done while snorkeling or swimming.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Camera Equipment 3 Underwater Flash 4 Split Images 5 Timeline 6 See also 7 External links

Overview

Underwater imaging is considered an especially challenging area of photography, since it requires very specialized equipment and techniques to be successful. Despite these challenges, it offers the possibility of many exciting and rare photographic opportunities. Animals such as fish and marine mammals are the most common subjects, but photographers also pursue shipwrecks, submerged cave systems, underwater "landscapes", and portraits of fellow divers.

The primary obstacle faced by underwater photographers is the extreme loss of color and contrast when submerged to any significant depth. The longer wavelengths of sunlight (such as red or orange) are absorbed quickly by the surrounding water, so even to the naked eye everything appears blue-green in color. The loss of color not only increases vertically through the water column, but also horizontally, so subjects further away from the camera will also appear colorless and indistinct. This effect is true even in apparently clear water, such as that found around tropical coral reefs.

Wide-angle shot of coral reef in East Timor

Underwater photographers solve this problem by combining two techniques. The first is to get the camera as close to the photographic subject as possible, minimizing the horizontal loss of color. This is best achieved by using wide-angle lenses, which allow very close focus, or macro lenses, where the subject is often only inches away from the camera. In practical terms, serious underwater photographers consider any more than about 3 ft/1 m of water between camera and subject to be unacceptable. The second technique is the use of flash to restore any color lost vertically through the water column. Fill-flash, used effectively, will "paint" in any missing colors by providing full-spectrum visible light to the overall exposure.

Since underwater photography is often performed while scuba diving, it is important that the diver-photographer be sufficiently skilled so that it remains a reasonably safe activity. Good scuba technique also has an impact on the quality of images, since marine life is less likely to be scared away by a calm diver, and the environment is less likely to be damaged or disturbed. There is the possibility of encountering poor conditions, such as heavy currents, tidal flow, or poor visibility. Generally, underwater photographers try to avoid these situations whenever possible.

Camera Equipment

Underwater photographers have several basic options for equipment:

A compact digital point and shoot camera, a compact digital camera with full exposure controls, and an SLR (single lens reflex camera). Unlike earlier amphibious or waterproof camera such as the Nikonos, which is designed specifically for use underwater, these cameras now require a housing to keep them water proof. Nikon discontinued the Nikonos series in 2001 and it is a 35mm film system, so it is somewhat obsolete, but some photographers still choose this approach. Sea and Sea continues to manufacture an amphibious range finder camera that utilizes 35mm film, the Motor Marine III.

Housings are specific to the camera and are made of several things from inexpensive plastic to high-priced aluminum cases. Housings allow many options, since the user can choose a housing specific to their everyday "land" camera, as well as utilize any lens in their collection. In practice, underwater photographers generally use either wide-angle lenses or macro lenses, both of which allow close focus, thereby eliminating the need to have excessive water between the camera and subject. Digital media can hold many more shots than standard photographic film (which rarely holds more than 36 frames). This is one of the primary advantages of using digital camera underwater, since it is impossible to change photographic film underwater. The instant feedback provides faster learning and improved creativity, which is why virtually all underwater photographers now use digital cameras.

Watertight housing Canon WP-DC600 for IXUS v2

All underwater housings are outfitted with controls knobs that access the camera inside, giving the photographer use of most of its normal functions. These housings may also have connectors to attach external flash units. Some basic housings allow the use of the flash on the camera, but the on-board flash may not be sufficiently powerful and are improperly placed for underwater applications. More advanced housings either redirect the on-board strobe to fire a slave strobe via a fiber optic cable, or physically prevent the use of the on-board strobe. Housings are made waterproof through a system of silicone o-rings at all the crucial joints.

There are optical issues with using cameras inside a watertight housing. Because of refraction, the image coming through the glass port will be distorted, in particular when using wide-angle lenses. The solution is to use a dome-shaped or fish-eye port, which corrects this distortion. Most manufacturers make these dome ports for their housings, often designing them to be used with specific lenses to maximize their effectiveness. The Nikonos series allowed the use of water contact optics: ie, lenses designed to be used whilst submerged, without the ability to focus correctly when used in air. There is also a problem with some digital cameras which do not have sufficiently wide lenses built into the camera. To solve this, there are housings made with supplementary optics in addition to the dome port, making the apparent angle of view wider. Some housings also allow for the use of wet-coupled lenses, which thread on to the exterior of the lens port and increase the field of view. These wet-coupled lenses may be added or removed underwater, allowing for both macro and wide angle photography on the same dive.

With macro lenses, the distortion caused by refraction is not an issue, so normally a simple flat glass port is used. In fact, refraction increases the magnification of a macro lens, so this is considered a benefit to the photographer, who may be trying to capture very small subjects.

Underwater Flash

Wide-angle image of French angelfish with proper balance between flash and sunlight

The use of a flash or strobe is often regarded as the most difficult aspect of underwater photography. Some common misconceptions exist about the proper use of flash underwater, especially as it relates to wide-angle photography. Generally, the flash should be used to supplement the overall exposure and restore lost color, not as the primary light source. In situations such as the interior of caves or shipwrecks, wide-angle images can be 100% strobe light, but such situations are fairly rare. Usually, the photographer tries to create an aesthetic balance between the available sunlight and the strobe. Deep, dark or low visibility environments can make this balance more difficult, but the concept remains the same. Many modern cameras have simplified this process through various automatic exposure modes and the use of through-the-lens (TTL) metering. The increasing use of digital cameras has reduced the learning curve of underwater flash significantly, since the user can instantly review photos and make adjustments.

Color is absorbed as it travels through water, so that the deeper you are, the less reds, oranges and yellow colors remain. The strobe replaces that color. It also helps to provide shadow and texture, and is a valuable tool for creativitiy.

An added complication is the phenomenon of backscatter, where the flash reflects off particles or plankton in the water. Even seemingly clear water contains enormous amounts of this particulate, even if it is not readily seen by the naked eye. The best technique for avoiding backscatter is positioning the strobe away from the axis of the camera lens. Ideally, this means the flash will not light up the water directly in front of the lens, but will still strike the subject. Various systems of jointed arms and attachments are used to make off-camera strobes easier to manipulate.

Macro image of a Whitemouth Moray Eel using 100% flash for the exposure

When using macro lenses, photographers are much more likely to use 100% strobe light for the exposure. The subject is normally very close to the lens, and the available sunlight is usually not sufficient.

There have been some attempts to avoid the use of flash entirely, but these have mostly failed. In shallow water, the use of custom white-balance provides excellent color without the use of strobe. In theory one could use color filters to overcome the blue-green shift, but this can be problematic. The amount of shift would vary with depth and turbidity, and there would still be a significant loss of contrast. Many digital cameras have settings that will provide color correction, but this can cause other problems. For example, an image shifted toward the "warm" part of the spectrum can create background water which appears gray, purple or pink, and looks very unnatural. There have been some successful experiments using filters combined with the RAW image format function on some high-end digital cameras, allowing much more detailed manipulation in the digital darkroom. This approach will probably always be restricted to shallow to moderate depths, where the loss of color is less extreme. In spite of that, it can be very effective for large subjects such as shipwrecks which could not be lit effectively with any strobe.

Natural light photography underwater can be beautiful when done properly with subjects such as upward silhouettes, light beams, and large subjects such as whales and dolphins.

Although digital cameras have revolutionized many aspects of underwater imaging, it is unlikely that flash will ever be eliminated completely. From an aesthetic standpoint, the flash often adds "pop" and helps to highlight the subject. Ultimately the loss of color and contrast is a pervasive optical problem that cannot always be adjusted in software such as Photoshop.

Split Images

Over/under image of a dock in Vermont farm pond

Another format considered part of underwater photography is the over/under or split image; it is a composition that includes roughly half above the surface and half underwater. The traditional technique was pioneered by the National Geographic photographer David Doubilet, who used it to capture scenes above and below the surface simultaneously. Split images are popular in recreational scuba magazines, often showing divers swimming beneath a boat, or shallow coral reefs with the shoreline seen in the background.

Over/under shots do present some technical challenges beyond the scope of most underwater camera systems. Normally a wide-angle lens is used, similar to the way they are used in everyday underwater photography. However, the exposure value in the "air" part of the image is often quite different from the one underwater. There is also the problem of refraction in the underwater segment, and how it affects the overall focus in relation to the air segment. There are specialized split filters designed to compensate for both of these problems, as well as techniques for creating even exposure across the entire image. Some photographers will also rely on extremely wide or fisheye lenses, which have enough depth of field to overcome any differences in focus.

Digital darkroom techniques can also be used to "splice" two images together, creating the appearance of an over/under shot.

Timeline

• 1856 — William Thompson takes first underwater pictures using a camera mounted on a pole.
• 1893 — Louis Boutan take underwater pictures while diving using a surface supplied hard hat diving gear.
• 1914 — John Ernest Williamson shot the first-ever underwater motion picture.
• 1923 — W.H. Longley and Charles Martin takes first underwater colour photos using a magnesium powered flash
• 1957 — The Calypso Phot camera was designed by Jean De Wouters and promoted by Jacques-Yves Cousteau.It was first released in Australia in 1963. It featured a maximum 1/1000th second shutter speed. A similar-looking version would later be produced by Nikon as the Nikonos,with a maximum 1/500th second shutter speed and became the best-selling underwater camera series.

See also

• Underwater videography
• Nature photography
• List of basic photography topics
• Diving equipment

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Underwater photography

• Underwater photography at the Open Directory Project

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