video game

An electronic or computerized game played by manipulating images on a video display or television screen.

Background

Video games are played at the arcade, at home on a television or personal computer, and as a handheld portable game. They are packaged in large consoles, game paks that can only be played on the same manufacturer's hardware (i.e. Nintendo, Sega Genesis, and Sony Playstation), and as CD-ROMs. Made up of a program that instructs the computer to display specific visual and audio effects, video games utilize cutting-edge technology in order to provide fast paced entertainment. Recent statistics show that 70% of all children in the United States have home video game systems. Over four billion dollars is spent on arcade video games annually.

History

A precursor to the video game, pinball machines were introduced during the 1930s and remained popular through the 1970s. In 1971, a video arcade game was produced called Computer Space. Invented by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, Computer Space was the first real coin-operated video game, but for various reasons, it never became popular. It did however, lay the groundwork for the next video game that Bushnell and Dabney introduced: the phenomenally successful arcade game Pong. Modeled after the game of ping pong, it was an electronic game in which players tried to hit a flashing dot passed their opponent's video paddle. With the success of Pong, Bushnell and Dabney started the Atari Company, and in 1975, they introduced a home version of Pong. In 1976, Warner Communication purchased Atari for $28 million and expanded its home line of video game cartridges.

At the same time Bushnell and Dabney were developing Pong, Ralph Baer, who was working for Sanders Associates, was designing a home video game system called The Odyssey. Developed in 1969, Baer's system was finally manufactured and distributed by Magnavox in 1972. The Odyssey was a package of 12 different plug-in games that were housed on circuit cards. Each game came with plastic overlays that, when placed over the television screen, simulated the appropriate background. For example, a plastic overlay of a hockey rink was included with the hockey game. The Odyssey also offered an electronic shooting gallery with four additional games and an electronic rifle. Eighty-five thousand systems were sold.

Rapid advances in electronics technology during the 1970s led to the development of more complicated games, such as Space Invaders and Pac-Man. Introduced in 1983 as a joint venture between the Namco Company of Japan and Midway of the United States, Pac-Man has sold hundreds of thousands of games and remains one of the most popular video games.

When personal computers became available, computer games were created. Many of these games were adaptations of arcade or home video game systems, however unique games were also developed. The computer game industry grew swiftly during the 1980s powered by various companies, especially the Nintendo Corporation. In the late 1980s, the CD-ROM was introduced. These disks could hold more information on them, and allowed the development of more sophisticated, interactive games. In 1995, digital video disks (DVDs) were first produced for home computers. Since they have a storage capacity over twenty times greater than CD-ROMs, they promise to revolutionize computer games.

Design

Design is the key aspect of making all video games. It is typically done by a team of skilled computer programmers, writers, artists, and other game designers. During this phase of development, they generate the game's specifications, which includes game type, objective, and graphics.

While creating a video game is rarely a step by step process, there are a variety of tasks that must be accomplished during the development phase. In the beginning, the type and objective of the game is determined. In general, games fall within six categories, or genres, including fighting, shooting, strategy, simulations, adventure, and run, jump and avoid (RJA). Fighting games require the players to battle with each other or the computer. Presently, they are the most popular and encompass such titles as Mortal Kombat and Street Fighter. Shooting games involve battles in which the player tries to destroy enemy tanks, ships, or planes. Strategy games include such classics as chess, bridge or checkers. Simulations are games, which reproduce real life situations such as flying or driving. Adventure games are computerized versions of role-playing fantasy games. The RJA games are those like the Super Mario games in which a character tries to reach a goal while being impeded by various obstacles.

The action of the game is dependent upon its intended venue. An arcade game must have immediate action. A home version usually includes various skill levels in order to keep the player interested over a longer period of time. A handheld version of a video game is simplified to be played in miniature.

Raw Materials

Although the most important raw material in creating a video game is imagination, a number of supplies are necessary to bring that imagination to life. Once the story has been created, characters and background are drawn on storyboards, then transferred to electronic format directly by an artist or via digitization. Lifelike action is captured on film and sound is recorded on digital audio tape (DAT).

Once design is complete, a variety of raw materials are used to produce video games. This includes the materials that go into making the storage medium, the accessories, and the packaging. The most common storage mediums are floppy disks and CDs. These are made with hard plastics such as polycarbonates. CDs have a thin layer of aluminum or silver coating. Additionally, they are coated with a protective, clear acrylic coating. Floppy disks are made with a thin plastic that is coated with a magnetic material. Plastics are also used to make the accessory pieces that some computer games require. In each of the plastics used, a variety of fillers and colorants are incorporated to modify its characteristics. Typically, computer games are packaged in highly decorated cardboard boxes.

The Manufacturing
Process

Creating a video game is a long, multifaceted process that can take up to one year to complete one game.

Creating the story

• Typically, writers are responsible for creating a game's story complete with a setting, characters, and plot. This gives the game a purpose and makes it more enjoyable for the player. It also provides an objective for the player and a guideline for the rules of the game. This information is then used to create the game's manual. Often, the inspiration for a story is derived from popular movies or books. The story is transferred to storyboards, where preliminary drawings are also added. Storyboards are a series of one-panel sketches pinned to a board. Each sketch is accompanied by story dialogue and/or character description.

Capturing action with art

After the type of game and story are outlined, the game's format can be determined. The format refers to what the player sees when playing the game. A variety of formats exist including platform, top-down, scrolling, isometric, three dimension (3D), and text. Platform games are those that feature a side view of the player's character. Top-down games give a bird's eye view of the player's character. They are often used for war games. The isometric format is a top-down game, which uses perspective tricks to give the illusion of 3D. True 3D games are just now becoming a reality with the introduction of CDs and DVDs. These represent the future of computer game formats. Text game formats have limited graphics and are only used for interactive fiction. In general, all games may use one or more of these formats.

• The artist adds drawings to storyboards, including character descriptions and arrows showing how the characters will move.
• Final pictures are created in two ways. An artist can render the final picture by creating converted graphics. Converted graphics are images that have been drawn by the artist using a computer. More life-like images are created by filming the action with an actor and then electronically digitizing the image. The artist reviews the videotaped action on a RGB monitor that produces brighter images and chooses each frame that will be used to create an action. Typically, six to 10 frames are used to show a character running/walking one step. Four to five frames are needed to illustrate a punch or a kick. The background is also created by the artist using both converted and digitized images. Though seemingly cohesive to the viewer, the background is really a collage of many different images.

Recording dialogue and sound
effects

• Dialogue and sound effects are recorded in a sound studio using various audio techniques. Once recorded on digital audio tape (DAT), the sounds are computerized by a synthesizer—a computer that specifically alters and translates sound into data.

Writing the program

• When all of the preliminary design elements are determined, programming, or coding, can begin. The first step in this process is drawing a flowchart, which shows the logical progression of the computer program. A variety of programming languages are used such as C++, Java, or visual BASIC. The code is typically produced by a team of programmers, each working on a different phase of the game, and can take up to seven months to produce. To speed the coding process, previously developed algorithms are often modified and adapted to the new game. This is more efficient because it eliminates the need to continually rewrite similar programs and reduces the chances of serious errors. Each action can require many individual instructions written by the programmer, and roughly 250,000 individual commands are written to create a video game program. Sound and graphics must also be programmed separately.

Testing

• The testing phase of game development helps reveal fundamental design and programming problems. Testing can be completed in a number of ways. The programmers can run the game and try to discover gross problems themselves. Additionally, professional playtesters are used. These are people who are specifically trained to play the games and look for subtle errors. They are typically game designers themselves, and have experience with many types of games. Beyond finding errors, playtesters also give criticisms and suggestions to make the game better. In some cases, computer game developers use people from the general population to test games. This gives them information about consumer acceptance. The information obtained from the testing phase is reviewed. Reprogramming is then done until the game is appropriately tweeked.

Burning the disks

• When the programming is completed, the game code is transferred to a master compact disk. This disk will be used to mass produce the thousands of copies needed. The master disk is composed of a smoothly polished glass coated with an adhesive and a photo resistive material. This disk is put into a laser-cutting machine. While the disk is spun, the binary code from the computer game's program sends a signal to the laser. The laser will then cut pits in the photo resistive coating corresponding to the program. The disk is then chemically etched and given a metal coating. At this point, it is an exact replica of a finished disk.
• A metal inverse copy of the master disk is then made through a process known as electroforming. Using an electrical current, metal is deposited on the master disk surface. This inverse copy is then used to make multiple metal masters through a similar process. These metal masters are used to make multiple inverse stamping copies.
• To mass produce plastic compact disks, the stamping copies are put into a die in an injection molding machine. In this machine, polycarbonate pellets are placed in a hopper and drawn through a long screw device. While it is drawn, the plastic becomes molten. It is then injected into the die with the stamping copy. It is held under pressure for a few moments and then allowed to cool. As it cools, it hardens giving it exactly the same pattern of pits as the master copy. It is then released from the die and inspected for flaws. If any flaws are found, the disk is rejected.
• The disk is then transferred to a machine, which punches a hole in its center. It is then coated with a thin film of either aluminum or silver using a vacuum deposition technique. Next, a clear acrylic plastic is applied. Finally, the disk is transported to a silk screen assembly and a label is printed on it.

Packaging the game

• All the components of the game are transported to the packaging line. Here, each part of the game is placed in a preprinted, cardboard box. This process may either be done by hand or by automated machinery. The game boxes are then conveyored to a shrink-wrap machine that seals them in plastic. They are cased and ready for shipment.

Quality Control

The process of transferring the computer game program to a compact disk, or DVD, must be done in a clean, dust-free environment. This is because dust particles are much larger than the pits carved in a disk, and a single particle can ruin a disk. Therefore, strict quality control measures are taken to control the environment around the disk-making process. Other visual inspections are done at various points during the disk manufacture. Random samples of finished disks are also tested to make sure the program is working properly. Beyond the checks involved in disk manufacture, the other components of the game are also checked to ensure they meet the required specifications. At the end of the manufacturing process, random samples of the finished product are checked to make sure it includes all of the necessary components.

The Future

Computer game programming continues to become more sophisticated as the available hardware improves. The most important recent advancement that promises to revolutionize gaming is the development of DVD technology. This will allow a much greater amount of information to be included in the game's program. This should improve many aspects of the game such as the artificial intelligence routines, the graphics, and the special effects. Things such as video clips will be included to make the games more interactive.

Where To Learn More

Books

Gruber, Diana. Action Arcade Adventure Set. Coriolis Group, 1994.

Katz, Arnie and Laurie Yates. Inside Electronic Game Design. Prima Publications, 1997.

Sawyer, Ben. The Ultimate Game Developers Sourcebook. Coriolis Group, 1997.

Periodicals

Bunn, Austin. "Joystick City." The Village Voice (December 30, 1997).

Wright, Maury. "DVD: Breathtaking Sight and Sound, Significant Challenges." EDN (August 15, 1997).

[Article by: Perry Romanowski]

Entertainment systems in which a computer is used to drive a video display and interact with players using a variety of input devices. Video games can be divided into arcade systems, home computers, and game consoles. The distinction between a home computer and a game console is that a computer can be used for a variety of other applications such as word processing and Internet access while a game console is specifically designed for entertainment purposes.

Arcade systems are typically built for a particular game or set of related games. Everything from the choice of controls to the design on the sides and face of the unit are geared toward the game itself. The display is typically larger than that on a home computer, providing a greater sense of immersion. In some cases, specialized optics are used to further increase the sense of breadth and depth. In some racing simulations, for example, multiple screens are arranged side by side in an arc around the player in order to give an even greater feeling of being “in” the game. A combination of conventional arcade games and specialized high-end systems involve virtual reality gear, large rear-projection screens, motion platforms, and sophisticated input devices. See also Simulation; Virtual reality.

A game console typically does not include its own display, but is hooked up to a television set. This provides only limited resolution. The input devices on game consoles are limited to simple multipurpose controllers that are included with the console. Most consoles come with two controllers in order to support two-player competitive games. Consoles are much less expensive than the average home computer system and often have specialized hardware for fast graphics and high-quality sound. The games are distributed either as cartridges (“carts”) or compact disks (CDs) that contain the game logic programmed into read-only memory (ROM). See also Compact disk.

Home computer systems have grown steadily more powerful to the point where they are more than capable of serving as game machines. Since they use an actual computer monitor rather than relying on a television set, the resolution and overall image quality is much higher than that of game consoles and often rivals or exceeds that of the arcade systems. A variety of controllers are available for the personal computer, ranging from simple analog joysticks to sophisticated input devices with full-force feedback. Production, packaging, and distribution costs for computer games are similar to those for game consoles that use CD-ROM. However, widespread Internet access allows game companies to make their games available for download. See also Computer graphics; Computer storage technology; Internet; Microprocessor.

Regardless of the platform (home computer, game console, arcade system), there are a number of basic genres of game. Some of these genres are more common on one type of platform than another, mostly due to technical limitations. Action games are popular on all platforms. Adventure games are mostly popular on home computers, though some game consoles do support them. Simulation games usually involve operating some sort of vehicle, such as an aircraft or a high-performance race car. Simulators can also be found on all popular platforms. Strategy games are based on planning and anticipating future events. There are two subcategories: war games and system simulators. War games are often based on reenacting historic battles of land, sea, or air. System simulators work by simulating a system such as a city, an ant colony, or an entire planet. Strategy games are found mostly on home computers and are not seen in arcade systems.

Definition

Video games are electronic, interactive games known for their vibrant colors, sound effects, and complex graphics.

Description

First mass-marketed in the 1970s, video games are played by installing cartridges into a game box connected by wire to a television set. The child then manipulates a joystick or controller to control the actions of a character or series of characters as the characters face obstacles displayed on the screen. Video games, designed chiefly to appeal to children and adolescents, can also be played in arcades, on computers, and on small, hand-held screens.

As of 2004 nearly every home in the United States with children had one or more of the most popular game systems, for example, Nintendo GameCube, Sony Playstation2, or Microsoft Xbox. Few children have not been exposed to some form of video game, and access to the games is readily available to children from all walks of life.

Video games for home use proved popular from the start. Children are particularly attracted to them for a variety of reasons. Fantasy characters and situations appeal to young imaginations and provide an escape from everyday routine and the stresses presented by parents, friends, and school. In addition, the games give children a level of control that they do not experience in real life, as the characters on the screen respond to the children's commands. Players also receive immediate rewards for making the right moves. Most games can be played at a variety of skill levels so that every player can be challenged.

The popularity of video games has been matched by the controversy they have sparked among parents, psychologists, and educators. The most prevalent objection results from the violent themes and characters that dominate in most video games. A 1989 study by the National Coalition on Television Violence (NCTV) found that, of the 95 most popular home video games, 58 percent were war games and 83 percent featured violent themes. As technology has improved to allow the games to show situations and characters that are more realistic, debate has escalated about the potential effects of video games on children's behavior. One NCTV study that monitored the playground behavior of eight- to ten-year-olds immediately after playing a laser-weapon game found an 80 percent increase in fighting. There is also added concern that repeated exposure to violence desensitizes children to its effects. Other experts and video game manufacturers contend that negative effects have not been proven adequately, and, in fact, playing such games gives players an avenue for the harmless release of stress and aggression.

Public pressure prompted some video game manufacturers in the early 1990s to begin labeling games with warnings about violent or sexually explicit content. In 1994, in response to considerable political pressure and the possibility of a federal rating agency, the industry created its own rating system, overseen by the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB). Ratings are assigned based on the games' suitability for various age groups. An "Early Childhood" designation on a game box indicates that the game is suitable for players ages three and older, and there is no violence, sexual content, or profanity. The designation "Everyone" indicates the game is for players ages six and older and may contain minimal violence or crude language. A "Teen" game for ages 13 and up may contain violence, profanity, and mild sexual themes. A "Mature" rating is considered suitable only for ages 17 and older and may include more intense violence, profanity, and mature sexual themes. "Adults Only" games are not intended for people under 18 and may include graphic depictions of sex and violence. The ratings system, however, is just a guide, and parents still need to oversee which video games their children buy and play.

In the past, the issue of gender bias in video games was another area of considerable debate. Not only were most video games male-oriented sports and combat games, female characters in the games were portrayed as victims to be rescued by the male hero or objects of violence or sexual desire. In the early 2000s, however, an increasing number of games had girl-oriented themes and an increasing number of gender neutral games became available.

Besides the socialization concerns presented by video games, medical concerns were also raised in the early 1990s, when video games were linked to epileptic seizures experienced by some 50 children. About one third of the children had experienced previous seizures, and there were questions about whether the seizures they experienced were related to playing or watching a video game. Two large studies later reported that the children who experienced video game-related seizures (VGRS) were particularly sensitive to light and that video games with flashing lights merely precipitated, rather than caused, the seizures. Sitting too close to the screen could exacerbate the effects of the light sensitivity, as could the increasingly complex graphic technology featured in games. Individuals with epilepsy are not thought to be particularly susceptible to VGRS, and no lasting neurological damage had as of 2004 been linked to these seizures.

Despite the controversy surrounding video games, benefits have also been noted: development of hand-eye coordination, increases in concentration, logical thinking skills, and healthy competition among children, as well as socialization skills gained from sharing strategies and the heightened self-esteem resulting from successful performances. One research study even found that doctors who had played more video games had better surgical skills.

Toddlerhood

There are a number of specialized video and computer games that are designed to be educational for toddlers. Many use familiar characters to teach basic things such as shape matching, the alphabet, and counting.

Preschool

Children in preschool can be exposed to video and computer games that reinforce the basic skills that they are learning, such as phonetics, shapes, colors, and basic addition.

Elementary School

School-age children can be encouraged to play educational games that reinforce what they are learning in the classroom. Parents should research the games that their children want to buy to ensure appropriate content for the child's age group. In the early 2000s marketers have developed increasing numbers of educational games that are also adventurous and exciting. Children, especially young ones, should be encouraged to play these instead of more violent games.

Middle and High School

The effect of violent games on behavior and social development is an especially important concern for older children. These children often spend much of their time playing video games when their parents are not present to supervise the content. Also, many teens buy video games with money earned from allowances or part time jobs, making it harder for parents to control which titles are purchased.

Studies have begun to find significant correlations between violence in video games and violence in real life. One study done on eighth and ninth graders compared teens who generally had personalities considered non-aggressive but who played violent games to those teens who had aggressive personalities but did not play violent games. The researchers found that the non-aggressive, video game playing teens were actually more likely to get in physical fights than the teens considered aggressive but who did not play video games.

Some states are trying to pass laws that would make it illegal to sell video games with certain ratings to people under the age for which the games are intended. Even if laws are created to try to prevent underage sale of very violent video games, parents should still be alert to what their teen is playing. Making the teen play video games in a common area and not in his or her bedroom with the door closed can be an important first step in regulating game play and facilitating discussion.

Common Problems

Children often become very involved in video games and do not want to stop playing them. Setting concrete limits about the amount of time that can be spent playing games and then enforcing these limits is essential. Even educational games should not be played to excess, because playing video games is not a substitute for positive social interaction or traditional learning. Children can also be encouraged to play the games with other children, because discussing strategies and problem solving in a group is a positive social activity.

Parental Concerns

The amount and degree of violence in video games is an important concern for parents. Monitoring the games that a child buys or rents and plays is an important way to help deal with this problem. If a child plays a violent video game at an arcade or another child's house, it can be helpful to discuss the difference between games and reality and to discuss what the real life repercussions of the actions taken in the game would be.

When to Seek Help

If a child has violent or aggressive behavior or a tendency to mimic the negative actions taken by characters in a video game it may be helpful to consult a mental health professional to discuss possible solutions.

See also Television habits.

Resources

Books

Calvert, Sandra L., Amy B. Jordan, and Rodney R. Cocking, eds. Children in the Digital Age: Influences of Electronic Media on Development. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.

Gee, James Paul. What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Periodicals

Eisenman, Russell. "Video Games: Technology and Social Issues." Journal of Evolutionary Psychology 25 (August 2004): 170–75.

Levermore, Monique A. "Violent Media and Videogames, and Their Role in Creating Violent Youth." The Forensic Examiner 13 (Fall 2004): 38–42.

"Video Game Play May Increase Laparoscopic Proficiency." AORN Journal 80 (August 2004): 290.

[Article by: Tish Davidson, A.M. Mary Anne Klasen]

Video Games encompass a range of electronic games, including coin-operated arcade games, console and cartridge games, various handheld electronics, and games on diskette and CD-ROM ranging in sophistication from simple geometric shapes to virtual reality programs with movielike qualities.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology student Steve Russell developed the first computer game, Spacewar, in 1962. Ralph Baer, an engineer at defense contractors Sanders and Associates, developed the first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey. The Odyssey connected to a regular television antenna terminal and was hardwired with twelve games, all variations of Ping-Pong. There was no sound or color, and each of the games required a different plastic overlay for the television screen, but 100,000 were sold by 1972. At the same time, another young entrepreneur, Nolan Bushnell, developed Pong and formed Atari. By 1974, 150,000 versions of home Pong had sold, and two years later there were over seventy companies making clones. The development of the game cartridge made hardwired consoles and tabletop games obsolete. Instead of buying a piece of hardware with a permanent set of games, consumer could buy one piece of hardware, the console, and as many games, or software, as companies could manufacture. By 1980 third-party companies such as Activision began producing games for other companies' consoles.

As PC technology advanced, so did gaming technology. In the early 1980s the market was dominated by Atari, Intellivision, and Coleco Vision, then in 1985 Nintendo released the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), using an eight-bit processor. By the 1990s, Nintendo released the sixteen-bit Super Nintendo and was joined by Sega. With the proliferation of video games in the 1980s, arcades became standard in American malls. Teenagers dropped 20 billion quarters into games by 1981. The video game industry also benefited from the increasing power and decreasing cost of home computers and the Internet. The Internet provides a virtual arcade where players can challenge opponents from all over the world using the vast array of data transmission methods. A 2000 survey found that 61 percent of players are over age eighteen, with an average age of twenty-eight. The home console market, dominated by Nintendo, Sony, and Sega, has taken advantage of advances in computer technology to increase processor speed to sixty-four-bit and enable consoles to connect to the Internet.

As the popularity of video games grew, controversy developed over the addictiveness of the games and related health problems stemming from hours of stationary play. The violent nature of many games has also become an issue, as graphics technology allowed for increasingly realistic images. In 1993 a rating system, much like the system for rating movies, was put in place.

Bibliography

Herz, J. C. Joystick Nation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1997.

Kent, Steven L. The Ultimate History of Video Games. Roseville, Calif.: Prima, 2001.

"Computer and video games" redirects here. For the magazine, see Computer and Video Games. For PC games specifically, see personal computer game. For Console games specifically, see console game. For Interactive Entertainment, see Interactive Entertainment (disambiguation).

Platforms Arcade game Audio game Console game Handheld game Mobile game Online game Personal computer game

Genres Action game Action-adventure game Adventure game Role-playing game Simulation game Sports game Strategy game

Topics Video game culture Video game history Video game industry Video game music

Lists List of best-selling video games List of gaming topics List of video game companies List of video game franchises List of video game industry people List of video game publishers List of video game records List of years in video games

v • d • e

A video game or interactive entertainment is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster display device.^[1] However, with the popular use of the term "video game", it now implies any type of display device. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms; examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use.

The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across platforms. For example, a dedicated console controller might consist of only a button and a joystick. Another may feature a dozen buttons and one or more joysticks. Early personal computer games often needed a keyboard for gameplay, or more commonly, required the user to buy a separate joystick with at least one button.^[2] Many modern computer games allow, or even require, the player to use a keyboard and mouse simultaneously.

Video games typically also use other ways of providing interaction and information to the player. Audio is almost universal, using sound reproduction devices, such as speakers and headphones. But other feedback may come via haptic peripherals, such as vibration or force feedback, with vibration sometimes used to simulate force feedback.

Contents 1 History 2 Overview 2.1 Platforms 2.2 Genres 2.3 Definition of core games 2.4 Definition of casual games 2.5 Definition of serious games 3 Development 3.1 Modifications 3.2 Cheating 3.3 Glitches 4 Theory 5 Social aspects 5.1 Demographics 5.2 Multiplayer 5.3 Benefits 5.4 Controversy 6 Commercial aspects 6.1 Game sales 6.2 Criticism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

History

Main article: History of video games

See also: First video game

Tennis for Two, an early analog computer game that used an oscilloscope for a display

Early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a "Cathode ray tube Amusement Device" was filed for a patent on January 25, 1947 by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on December 14, 1948 as U.S. Patent 2455992.^[3]

Inspired by radar display tech, it consisted of an analog device that allowed a user to control a vector-drawn dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired at targets, which were drawings fixed to the screen.^[4]

Other early examples include:

• The NIMROD computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain
• OXO a tic-tac-toe Computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC in 1952
• Tennis for Two, an interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958
• Spacewar!, written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen's on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961.

Each game used different means of display: NIMROD used a panel of lights to play the game of Nim,^[5] OXO used a graphical display to play tic-tac-toe ^[6] Tennis for Two used an oscilloscope to display a side view of a tennis court,^[4] and Spacewar! used the DEC PDP-1's vector display to have two spaceships battle each other.^[7]

In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially-sold, coin-operated video game. It used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips.^[8] The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green. Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the "Brown Box", it also used a standard television.^[4][9] These were followed by two versions of Atari's Pong; an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975.^[10] The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, spawning the video game industry.^[11]

Overview

Platforms

See also: History of video games

The term "platform" refers to the specific combination of electronic or computer hardware which, in conjunction with low-level software, allows a video game to operate.^[12] The term "system" is also commonly used.

In common use a "PC game" refers to a form of media that involves a player interacting with a personal computer connected to a high-resolution video monitor^{[citation needed]}. A "console game" is played on a specialized electronic device that connects to a standard television set or composite video monitor^{[citation needed]}. A "handheld" gaming device is a self contained electronic device that is portable and can be held in a user's hands^{[citation needed]}. "Arcade game" generally refers to a game played on an even more specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is encased in a special cabinet. These distinctions are not always clear and there may be games that bridge one or more platforms^{[citation needed]}. Beyond this there are platforms that have non-video game variations such as in the case of electro-mechanically based arcade machines. There are also devices with screens which have the ability to play games but are not dedicated video game machines (examples are mobile phones, PDAs and graphing calculators)^{[citation needed]}.

Genres

Main article: Video game genres

A video game, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into genres based on many factors such as method of game play, types of goals, and more. Because genres are dependent on content for definition, genres have changed and evolved as newer styles of video games are created. As the production values of video games have increased over the years both in visual appearance and depth of story telling, the video game industry has been producing more life-like and complex games that push the boundaries of the traditional game genres. Some genres represent combinations of others, such as massively multiplayer online role-playing games, or, more commonly, MMORPGs. It is also common to see higher level genre terms that are collective in nature across all other genres such as with action or horror-themed video games.

Definition of core games

Core games are what most consider to be video games; the games players buy in a store and play on a PC, or a video game console. These core games can also be divided into the types core games, casual games, and serious games themselves as well, but are still considered part of the group of core games.

What defines core games is that they are generally larger and more expanded than the games in the casual games and serious games branch. For instance, games like Mario Party, Buzz!, or Viva Piñata are considered casual games in the core games branch, but are considerably different from casual games such as Peggle, Delicious and Jewel Quest.

Definition of casual games

Main article: Casual game

The casual games branch is mostly defined by the accessibility of gameplay found in the casual genres such as hidden object, match three, time management, tetris and the distribution is mostly done through casual games portals such as PopCap, Zylom and GameHouse.^[13]

Definition of serious games

Main article: Serious game

Some video games are made for reasons beyond entertainment. These include advergames, exergames, educational games, propaganda games (e.g. militainment), and others. Many of these fall under the category of serious games. Serious games are games that are meant to be played by professionals for education in a specific job or skills set.

The difference between serious games and core games is the target audience. A serious core game is more often (incorrectly) referred to as an educational game, as its target is to teach or educate a younger audience, for instance a game that would teach another language would be an educational game. An actual serious game is more of a training simulator for professional workers, such as First Responder Training, which helps firemen in making better tactical decisions in their line of work. Serious games are also not distributed as a game for individuals, but are tailor made software programs made for one or more companies.^[14]

Development

Main article: Game development

Video game development and authorship, much like any other form of entertainment, is frequently a cross-disciplinary field. Video game developers, as employees within this industry are commonly referred, primarily include programmers and graphic designers. Over the years this has expanded to include almost every type of skill that one might see prevalent in the creation of any movie or television program, including sound designers, musicians, and other technicians; as well as skills that are specific to video games, such as the game designer. All of these are managed by producers.

In the early days of the industry, it was more common for a single person to manage all of the roles needed to create a video game. As platforms have become more complex and powerful in the type of material they can present, larger teams have been needed to generate all of the art, programming, cinematography, and more. This is not to say that the age of the "one-man shop" is gone, as this is still sometimes found in the casual gaming and handheld markets, where smaller games are prevalent due to technical limitations of the target platform (such as cellphones and PDAs).^{[citation needed]}

With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry, the problem of cost has increased. Development studios need to be able to pay their staff a competitive wage in order to attract and retain the best talent, while publishers are constantly looking to keep costs down in order to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development team can range in sizes of anywhere from 5 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. In May 2009, one game project was reported to have a development staff of 450.^[15] The growth of team size combined with greater pressure to get completed projects into the market to begin recouping production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines and unfinished products;^{[citation needed]} Duke Nukem Forever is the quintessential example of these problems.^{[citation needed]}

See also: Video game industry practices

Modifications

Main article: Mod (computer gaming)

Many games produced for the PC are designed such that technically-oriented consumers can modify the game. These mods can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest. Developers such as id Software, Valve Software, Crytek, Epic Games and Blizzard Entertainment ship their games with some of the development tools used to make the game, along with documentation to assist mod developers. The Internet provides an inexpensive medium to promote and distribute mods, and they may be a factor in the commercial success of some games.^[16] This allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as the Half-Life mod Counter-Strike.

Cheating

Main article: Cheating (video games)

Cheating in computer games may involve cheat codes and hidden spots implemented by the game developers,^[17][18] modification of game code by third parties,^[19][20] or players exploiting a software glitch. Modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware or a software trainer.^[19] Cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for example lives, weapons, health, or ammunition.^[18][19] Other cheats might provide an unusual or amusing feature, like altered game colors or graphical appearances.

There is one problem with cheat codes. The codes may cause the game to lose memory. Their also games that cheat codes such as for example the Lucas arts Entertainment game Star Wars: The Force Unleashed where if cheat codes are use the player may not be able to save his or her game. There are also some games where the cheat code may cause software glitch to the game. Even though cheat codes can make the game more fun and easier. They may not work to best expectation. Cheat code make the game more exciting it is best to use at your own risk.

Glitches

Example of a glitch from the video game Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3

Main article: Computer glitch

Software errors not detected by software testers during development can find their way into released versions of computer and video games. This may happen because the glitch only occurs under unusual circumstances in the game, was deemed too minor to correct, or because the game development was hurried to meet a publication deadline. Glitches can range from minor graphical errors to serious bugs that can delete saved data or cause the game to malfunction. In some cases publishers will release updates (referred to as patches) to repair glitches.

Theory

Main article: Game studies

Although departments of computer science have been studying the technical aspects of video games for years, theories that examine games as an artistic medium are a relatively recent development in the humanities. The two most visible schools in this emerging field are ludology and narratology. Narrativists approach video games in the context of what Janet Murray calls "Cyberdrama". That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium, one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the Holodeck, a fictional piece of technology from Star Trek, arguing for the video game as a medium in which we get to become another person, and to act out in another world.^[21] This image of video games received early widespread popular support, and forms the basis of films such as Tron, eXistenZ, and The Last Starfighter.

Ludologists break sharply and radically from this. They argue that a video game is first and foremost a game, which must be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and the concept of play that it deploys. Espen J. Aarseth argues that, although games certainly have plots, characters, and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. For example, Aarseth is critical of the widespread attention that narrativists have given to the curvaceous heroine of the game Tomb Raider, saying that "the dimensions of Lara Croft's body, already analyzed to death by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would not make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past it."^[22] Simply put, ludologists reject traditional theories of art because they claim that the artistic and socially relevant qualities of a video game are primarily determined by the underlying set of rules, demands, and expectations imposed on the player.

While many games rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. The term "emergent narrative" has been used to describe how, in a simulated environment, storyline can be created simply by "what happens to the player."^[23] However, emergent behavior is not limited to sophisticated games. In generally any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a game, emergent behavior will exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are programmed to avoid crashing, and they encounter an obstacle in the track: the cars might then maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow and/or maneuver to accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game.

Social aspects

Demographics

The November 2005 Nielsen Active Gamer Study, taking a survey of 2,000 regular gamers, found that the U.S. games market is diversifying. The age group among male players has expanded significantly up into the 25-40 age group. For casual online puzzle-style and simple mobile cell phone games, the gender divide is more or less equal between males and females. Females have been shown to be significantly attracted to playing certain online multi-user video games that offer a more communal experience, and a small number of young females have been shown to play aggressive games that are sometimes thought of as being "traditionally male" games. According to the ESRB almost 41% of PC gamers are women.^[24] With such video game social networks as Miss Video Game and Guild Cafe having a large percentages of female gamers, the "traditionally male" games are now considered cross-gendered.

When comparing today’s industry climate with that of 20 years ago,women and many adults are more inclined to be using products in the industry. While the market for teen and young adult men is still a strong market, it’s the other demographics which are posting significant growth. In 2008, the average American gamer has been playing for 12 years, and is now, on average, 35 years of age.^[25]

Multiplayer

Main article: Multiplayer game

Video gaming has traditionally been a social experience. Multiplayer video games are those that can be played either competitively or cooperatively by using either multiple input devices, or by hotseating. Tennis for Two, arguably the first video game, was a two player game, as was its successor Pong. The first commercially available game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, had two controller inputs.

Since then, most consoles have been shipped with two or four controller inputs. Some have had the ability to expand to four, eight or as many as twelve inputs with additional adapters, such as the Multitap. Multiplayer arcade games typically feature play for two to four players, sometimes tilting the monitor on its back for a top-down viewing experience allowing players to sit opposite one another.

Many early computer games for non-PC descendant based platforms featured multiplayer support. Personal computer systems from Atari and Commodore both regularly featured at least two game ports. PC-based computer games started with a lower availability of multiplayer options because of technical limitations. PCs typically had either one or no game ports at all. Network games for these early personal computers were generally limited to only text based adventures or MUDs that were played remotely on a dedicated server. This was due both to the slow speed of modems (300-1200-bit/s), and the prohibitive cost involved with putting a computer online in such a way where multiple visitors could make use of it. However, with the advent of widespread local area networking technologies and Internet based online capabilities, the number of players in modern games can be 32 or higher, sometimes featuring integrated text and/or voice chat. Social video gaming has become a common pastime. Pankration (Holiday), a video gaming festival is an example of this. MMOs can offer extremely high numbers of simultaneous players; Eve Online set a record with just under 36,000 players on a single server in 2006.^[26]

Benefits

Main article: Video game behavioral effects

It has been shown that action video game players have better visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than nonplayers.^[27] Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games, involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games requiring concentration on single objects. It has been suggested by a few studies that online/offline video gaming can be used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different mental health concerns.^[which?]

In Steven Johnson's book, Everything Bad Is Good For You, he argues that video games in fact demand far more from a player than traditional games like Monopoly. To experience the game, the player must first determine the objectives, as well as how to complete them. They must then learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and HUDs. Beyond such skills, which after some time become quite fundamental and are taken for granted by many gamers, video games are based upon the player navigating (and eventually mastering) a highly complex system with many variables. This requires a strong analytical ability, as well as flexibility and adaptability. He argues that the process of learning the boundaries, goals, and controls of a given game is often a highly demanding one that calls on many different areas of cognitive function. Indeed, most games require a great deal of patience and focus from the player, and, contrary to the popular perception that games provide instant gratification, games actually delay gratification far longer than other forms of entertainment such as film or even many books.^[28] Some research suggests video games may even increase players' attention capacities.^[29]

Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which to reform the U.S. education system.^[30] It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while playing that is of such high concentration, they don't realize they're learning, and that if the same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits.^[31] Students are found to be "learning by doing" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking.^[32]

The U.S. Army has deployed machines such as the PackBot which make use of a game-style hand controller to make it more familiar for young people.^[33]

According to research discussed at the 2008 Convention of the American Psychological Association, certain types of video games can improve the gamers’ dexterity as well as their ability to problem-solve. A study of 33 laparoscopic surgeons found that those who played video games were 27 percent faster at advanced surgical procedures and made 37 percent fewer errors compared to those who did not play video games. A second study of 303 laparoscopic surgeons (82 percent men; 18 percent women) also showed that surgeons who played video games requiring spatial skills and hand dexterity and then performed a drill testing these skills were significantly faster at their first attempt and across all 10 trials than the surgeons who did not play the video games first.^[34]

Whilst many studies have detected superior mental aptitudes amongst habitual gamers, research by Walter Boot at the University of Illinois found that non-gamers showed no improvement in memory or multitasking abilities after 20 hours of playing three different games. The researchers suggested that "individuals with superior abilities are more likely to choose video gaming as an activity in the first place".^[35]

Controversy

Main article: Video game controversy

Like related forms of media, computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, advergaming (a form of advertising in games), consumption of drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco, propaganda, or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games sometimes include parents' groups, politicians, organized religious groups, and other special interest groups, even though all of these can be found in all forms of entertainment and media. Various games have been accused of causing addiction and even violent behavior. "Video game censorship" is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views.

Various national content rating organizations, such as the Entertainment Software Ratings Board or ESRB in North America, rate software for certain age groups and with certain content warnings. Some of these organizations are optional industry self-regulation (such as the ESRB), while others are part of national government censorship organizations. Also, parents are not always aware of the existence of these ratings.^[36]

Commercial aspects

Game sales

See also: List of best-selling video games

A typical retail display (in Geneva, Switzerland) with a large selection of games for several major consoles

The three largest producers of and markets for computer and video games (in order) are North America (US and Canada), Japan and the United Kingdom. Other significant markets include Australia, Spain, Germany, South Korea, Mexico, France and Italy.^[37] Both India and China are considered emerging markets in the video game industry and sales are expected to rise significantly in the coming years.

Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences. Japanese consumers tend to purchase console games over computer games, with a strong preference for games catering to local tastes. In South Korea, computer games are preferred, especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games. There are over 20,000 Internet cafés in South Korea where computer games can be played for an hourly charge.

The NPD Group tracks computer and video game sales in the United States. It reported that:

• Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003^[38]
• Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003^[38]
• PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 15% from 2006^[39]

PC games that are digitally distributed either directly or by networks such as Steam are not tracked by the NPD, and Steam does not list sales numbers for games downloaded through their service. Unauthorized distribution is also rampant on the PC.^[40]

These figures are sales in dollars, not units, Unit shipments for each category were higher than the dollar sales numbers indicate, because more software and hardware was discounted than in 2003. But with the release of the next-generation consoles in 2006, these numbers increased dramatically. The game and film industries are also becoming increasingly intertwined, with companies like Sony having significant stakes in both. A large number of summer blockbuster films spawn a companion game, often launching at the same time to share the marketing costs.

Criticism

In Australia, the United Kingdom and other PAL regions, generally when compared to the US, PAL gamers pay 40% to 50% more for the same product.^[41]

As English is the main language in Australia and the UK there is little impetus for translation (although regional differences naturally exist). The differences between PAL and NTSC are these days irrelevant; most video displays run at least 60Hz. But there is a legal problem of regional lockout in Australia, with most DVD players release coming region-free to meet local laws.^[42]

However, video game consoles are still sold fully in Australia. Some effort has been made to increase awareness of the issue, specifically to Nintendo of Australia,^[43] was in the form of a formal report outlining the issues, published by Aaron Rex Davies.^[44] The report has gone on to gain a lot of attention in the public media.^[45]

See also

Video games portal

• Audio game
• Category:Novels based on video games
• Computer Games Artist
• Gamers Outreach Foundation
• Gaming PC
• History of Games
• Nonviolent video game
• Personal computer game
• Portrayal of women in video games
• ROM
• Unlockable games
• Videogame art
• Video game collecting
• Video game console emulator
• Video game culture
• Video game industry
• Video game packaging

Lists

• List of gaming topics
• List of home computers by video hardware
• Lists of video games

Notes

1. ^ "Television gaming apparatus and method". United States Patents. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3659285.html. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 
2. ^ *Patrick Stack. "History of video game consoles" Time Magazine website 2005 /
3. ^ U.S. Patent 2,455,992
4. ^ ^{a b c} "Welcome to Pong-Story - Introduction". PONG-Story.com. http://www.pong-story.com/intro.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
5. ^ "Welcome to... NIMROD!". http://www.goodeveca.net/nimrod/. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
6. ^ Winter, David. "A.S.Douglas' 1952 Noughts and Crosses game". PONG-Story. http://www.pong-story.com/1952.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-03. 
7. ^ Rabin, Steve (2005). Introduction to Game Development. Massachusetts: Charles River Media. ISBN 1-58450-377-7. 
8. ^ Marvin Yagoda (2008). "1972 Nutting Associates Computer Space". http://marvin3m.com/arcade/cspace.htm. 
9. ^ Orlando, Greg (2007-05-15). "Console Portraits: A 40-Year Pictorial History of Gaming". Wired News. http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/multimedia/2007/05/gallery_game_history. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
10. ^ "History of Gaming - Interactive Timeline of Game History". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/kcts/videogamerevolution/history/timeline_flash.html. Retrieved 2007-10-25. 
11. ^ Miller, Michael (2005-04-01). "A History of Home Video Game Consoles". InformIT. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20071012152258/http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=378141. Retrieved 2007-10-25. 
12. ^ "platform - Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/platform. Retrieved 2007-11-03. 
13. ^ *Anne Derryberry, "Defintion of casual games Adobe.com August 2007
14. ^ *Anne Derryberry, "Definition of Serious games Adobe.com August 2007
15. ^ "Assassin's Creed II dev team triples in size", Christopher Reynolds, 18 May 2009, NOW Gamer.
16. ^ Hollywood Reporter interviewing Doug Lombardi, Quote: "Mods absolutely helped us drive huge sales to 'Half-Life,'".
17. ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (2006-08-28). "In Game World, Cheaters Proudly Prosper". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/27/AR2006082701059.html. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
18. ^ ^{a b} 1UP Staff. "Cracking the Code: The Konami Code". 1UP.com. http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3108751&did=1. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
19. ^ ^{a b c} Rybka, Jason. "Video Game Cheats and Codes - What Are Cheat Codes?". About.com. http://vgstrategies.about.com/od/faqglossary/a/WhatAreCheats.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
20. ^ Rybka, Jason. "Why Use Cheats and Codes for Console and PC Games?". About.com. http://vgstrategies.about.com/od/basicgamingtipstricks/a/whyusecheats.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-24. 
21. ^ Murray, Janet (1998). Hamlet on the Holodeck. MIT Press. ISBN 0262631873. 
22. ^ Aarseth, Espen J. (2004-05-21). "Genre Trouble". Electronic Book Review. http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/firstperson/vigilant. Retrieved 2006-06-14. 
23. ^ IGN: GDC 2004: Warren Spector Talks Games Narrative
24. ^ Guy, Hannah (2007). "Women video gamers: Not just solitaire". http://www.pcworld.ca/news/column/a7fe9b8a0a010408019ac931643ebf2c/pg0.htm. ] from PC World, Canada
25. ^ US Video Games Industry Report" IBISWorld, August 2008
26. ^ MMORPG.com report EVE Online reaching 32955 Peak Concurrent Users
27. ^ Green, C. Shawn (2003). "Action video games modify visual attention". Nature 423: 534–537. doi:10.1038/nature01647. Green & Bavelier. 
28. ^ Brain Candy: The New Yorker
29. ^ Daphne Bavelier et al. (2003). "Action video game modifies visual selective attention" (PDF). Nature/University of Rochester. http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/daphne/GreenandBavelier.pdf. Retrieved April 29 2006. 
30. ^ Gee, James Paul (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach us About Literacy and Learning. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1403961697. 
31. ^ James Paul Gee et al. (2007). "Wired 11.05: View". Codenet, Inc.. http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.05/view.html. Retrieved December 4 2007. 
32. ^ Glazer, S. (2006). "Video games". CQ Researcher 16: 960–937. doi:cqresrre2006111000. 
33. ^ "iRobot Receives New Military Orders 14 PackBot Robots". 2007. http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/iRobot_Receives_New_Military_Orders_14_PackBot_Robots_999.html. Retrieved July 25 2007. 
34. ^ Playing Video Games Offers Learning Across Life Span Newswise, Retrieved on August 17, 2008.
35. ^ "One less excuse to play video games". New Scientist (Reed Business Information) (2680): 23. November 1, 2008. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20026805.700-video-games-dont-train-your-brain.html. Retrieved 2008-10-30. 
36. ^ ""Grand Theft Auto Makers Sued By LA Attorney For Hidden Porn"". Console Watcher. 2006. http://www.consolewatcher.com/2006/01/grand-theft-auto-makers-sued-by-la-attorney-for-hidden-porn/. Retrieved October 26 2006. 
37. ^ Computer And Video Games: A British Phenomena Around the World (PDF)
38. ^ ^{a b} "U.S. video game industry sales dip in 2004". Game Info Wire. January 18, 2005. http://gameinfowire.com/news.asp?nid=5650. Retrieved February 12 2006. 
39. ^ "Sales & Genre data". Entertainment Software Association (ESA). 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-02-08. http://web.archive.org/web/20060208194822/http://www.theesa.com/facts/sales_genre_data.php. Retrieved February 12 2006. 
40. ^ DiCarlo, Lisa (July 18, 2005). "Do Game Publishers Ignore Piracy?". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on 2008-01-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20080103014804/http://www.forbes.com/2005/07/18/videogame-piracy-worldwide-cx_ld_0718piracy.html. Retrieved October 29 2007. 
41. ^ "Article on Regional Lockout Pricing"
42. ^ "High Court of Australia enforcing region free"
43. ^ Nintendo Australia
44. ^ "Research report into excessive delays in release of Wii software by Nintendo in Australia and New Zealand regions" by Aaron Rex Davies (PDF)
45. ^ "Australia to Nintendo: Knock It Off"

References

• Lieu, Tina (August 1997). "Where have all the PC games gone?"". Computing Japan. Archived from the original on 1998-01-12. http://web.archive.org/web/19980112155115/http://www.cjmag.co.jp/magazine/issues/1997/aug97/0897pcgames.html. 
• Costikyan, Greg (1994). "I Have No Words & I Must Design". http://www.costik.com/nowords.html. 
• Crawford, Chris (1982). "The Art of Computer Game Design". http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Coverpage.html. 
• Salen, Katie; Eric Zimmerman (2005). The Game Design Reader: A Rules of Play Anthology. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19536-4. 
• Smuts, Aaron (2005). "Are Video Games Art?". http://www.contempaesthetics.org/newvolume/pages/article.php?articleID=299. 
• Blodget, Henry (April 12, 2005). "How to Solve China's Piracy Problem". Slate.com. http://slate.msn.com/id/2116629/. Retrieved February 12 2006. 
• Winegarner, Beth (January 28, 2005). "Game sales hit record highs". Gamespot. http://www.gamespot.com/news/2005/01/28/news_6117438.html. Retrieved February 12 2006. 
• John Wills (2002-10-01). "Digital Dinosaurs and Artificial Life: Exploring the Culture of Nature in Computer and Video Games". Cultural Values (Journal for Cultural Research) (Routledge) 6 (4): 395–417. doi:10.1080/1362517022000047334. 
• Williams, J. P., & Smith, J. H., eds. (2007). The players' realm: studies on the culture of video games and gaming. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. ISBN 9780786428328

External links

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• Video game at the Open Directory Project
• Tom Chatfield writes on the culture and future of video games for Prospect Magazine
• CBC Digital Archives: The Arcade Age
• Outlaw's Gameroom & Lounge

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v • d • e Video game genres Action Beat 'em up  · Fighting game  · Platform game  · Shooter game (First-person shooter  · Light gun shooter  · Shoot 'em up  · Third-person shooter  · Tactical shooter) Action-adventure Stealth game · Survival horror Adventure Dating sim · Graphic adventure game (Escape the room) · Interactive fiction · Interactive movie · Visual novel Role-playing Action role-playing game · Computer role-playing game · Console role-playing game · MMORPG · MUD · Roguelike · Tactical role-playing game · Role-playing shooter Simulation Construction and management simulation (Business · City · God · Government)  · Life simulation (Pet · Social) Strategy 4X game · Artillery game · Real-time strategy (Tower defense) · Real-time tactics · Turn-based strategy · Turn-based tactics · Wargame Vehicle simulation Flight simulator (Combat flight simulator) · Racing game (Sim racing) · Space flight simulator · Submarine simulator · Train simulator · Vehicular combat game Other genres Adult game / Eroge · Advergame · Art game · Christian game · Edugame · Exergame  · Music game (Rhythm)  · Non-game · Party game · Programming game · Puzzle game (Hidden object game) · Serious game · Sports game · Traditional game Related concepts Audio game · Casual game · Minigame · Online game (Browser game · MMOG)

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