Vidkun Quisling

For more information on Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonsson Quisling, visit Britannica.com.

Vidkun Quisling (1887-1945) served as the prime minister of Norway during the German occupation, from 1940 to 1945. He collaborated with the Nazis and was responsible for the persecution of Norwegian Jews. Found guilty of high treason, Quisling was executed in 1945. His name entered the English language as a synonym for traitor.

Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonsson Quisling, whose name became synonymous with the word traitor, was born in Fyresdal, Norway on July 18, 1887 to Jon Lauritz (a priest) and Anna Caroline Bang Quisling. As a child, Quisling was interested in religion, metaphysics, and mathematics. At the age of 12, he invented a mathematical demonstration still taught in Norway today. His parents intended for him to have a career in the military. Quisling graduated from the military academy with the highest grades ever achieved there, earning him a presentation to the king. In 1917, he achieved the rank of captain and in 1931 became a major.

Quisling also had a diplomatic career. He served as a military attache to Petrograd, in the Soviet Union, from 1918 to 1919. From 1919 to 1921, he was a military attache in Helsinki, Finland. In the 1920s, Quisling was involved with the League of Nations, which was established after World War I to settle international disputes and to solve social and economic problems through international cooperation. In the early 1920s, Quisling served on the International Russian Relief Committee in the Ukraine, then part of the Soviet Union. There he met and married Maria Pasek. Quisling learned to speak Russian fluently and later wrote several books on the country. He also worked to help Balkan refugees. In the mid-1920s, Quisling was a delegate to the Armenian Commission of the League of Nations.

Quisling helped Fridtjof Nansen on his humanitarian missions in the USSR and Armenia from 1922 to 1925. Nansen was a renowned explorer, zoologist, and diplomat who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922 and represented Norway on the Disarmament Committee of the League of Nations in 1927. Quisling may have owed his early success, in some part, to Nansen's friendship.

In the late 1920s, Quisling served as a diplomat in Moscow. He was honored by the British in 1929 for his efforts to smooth relations between the Soviet Union and England. The time he spent in the Soviet Union convinced him that Communism was a political system to be feared.

From 1931 to 1933, Quisling was the Norwegian minister of defense. His politics were very conservative. "There is little doubt that Socialism, apart from its adherents among the Jewish intelligentsia, is mainly prevalent in the short-skulled Alpine race, which includes the bulk of the lower classes in Central Europe and the majority of the original Slav inhabitants of Eastern Europe. Bolshevism might be described as an Asiatic-Slav movement led by Jewish minds," wrote Quisling as quoted in Alan S. Milward's The Fascist Economy in Norway.

Quisling feared that Norwegian labor leaders were planning revolution. In 1932, he left the Agrarian (Farmers) Party to found his own political party, called the National Unity (or Union) Party, which received subsidies from Germany and was modeled on its National Socialist (Nazi) Party. This extreme right-wing party wanted to do away with Communism and unions. National Unity was not popular with the voters of Norway. It received only 28,000 votes in the elections of 1933, and declined to only 14,000 votes in 1936. Three years later the party was falling apart.

Involvement with Hitler

Quisling became friends with Alfred Rosenberg, a Nazi ideologist. He attended Nazi meetings outside of Norway, including one in Riga, Latvia, in 1937. Quisling may have been told at that meeting that he would one day head Norway.

Historians do not completely agree on Quisling's role in the German invasion of Norway. Some feel that he gave the idea to Hitler, while others claim that Hitler had the idea all along and simply made use of Quisling to achieve it. Whichever may be the case, it seems that during a visit to Berlin in December 1939, Quisling discussed with Hitler how valuable it would be for Germany to occupy Norway.

According to Rosenberg, at another meeting with Hitler, "[Quisling] again put forward a concrete proposal for preparing a German landing at the request of a new government that would be set up. In addition, Quisling had informed Hitler that the Western powers were planning, with Norway's consent, to occupy bases of operation in Norway." The British, he said, were planning landings at the air bases of Stavanger and Kristiansand. Quisling's pro-Nazi party was willing to take over the bases and give them to the Germans. The information earned Quisling two meetings with Hitler, who paid him 200,000 gold marks.

Some historians feel that, although the Germans considered an invasion of Norway that depended on the support of Quisling and his followers, the idea was abandoned because of a suspicion that Quisling had greatly overstated his strength and capabilities. Therefore, Quisling played no role in the Nazi invasion of Norway after December 1939. Others believe that, because Quisling was in Berlin just four days before the invasion of Norway, he must have been directly involved.

German Invasion

The German invasion of Norway and Denmark began on April 9, 1940. Denmark surrendered immediately. The Germans attacked Norway using warships and paratroopers, but met several weeks of stiff resistance. Norwegian troops retreated north for several weeks. Immediately after the invasion, Quisling proclaimed himself the new head of government and revoked the order for mobilization. Instead, he called for voluntary war efforts in support of Germany. These actions were undertaken without the support of the people or government, violating Norway's laws and constitution. Norway would have preferred to remain neutral.

The Norwegian people resisted not only the Germans, but also Quisling and his government. Within days people began calling him a traitor and loathed his name. His speeches were not well received. In Bergen, Quisling was met by a demonstration of several thousand people shouting, "down with the traitor." He became the butt of Norwegian humor. A few days after Quisling came into power, people were telling the joke: "Have you heard the latest news? Quisling has taken over the tram-ways." "Why?" "It's the only way he can get any more hangers-on!"

King Haakon VII and his government, fleeing before advancing German troops, would not give in to Nazi demands. When the king refused to abdicate or recognize his government, Quisling resigned, after holding the reins of power for only a week. Ingolf Elser Christensen replaced him. After two months of occasional fighting, the king and his government fled to England. Norway surrendered to the Nazis on June 10.

Anti-Semitic persecutions began days after the German invasion. The Nazis issued orders to Norway's Jewish community to turn over its membership lists. Jews were also commanded to give up their radio sets to the authorities. In August 1940, the first detentions of Norwegian Jews took place.

Became Leader of Norway

On August 16, 1940, the Norwegian Communist Party was the first political party to be outlawed in Norway. Their newspaper was suppressed and their leaders arrested. The Nazis soon banned all political parties except for Quisling's. Quisling made another bid for the premiership in late August 1940, but the Germans could not agree on whether to support him or not. The Norwegian Parliament failed to form its own puppet government. As leader of the State Council of 13 Nazi-dominated commissioners, Quisling was made the sole head of Norway on September 25, 1940.

Repression grew worse, with the Jewish population being the first group to suffer. In October 1940, Jews were forbidden to hold academic positions. Norwegian communities were forced to create lists of "pure Jews." On April 21, 1941, German troops desecrated the synagogue in Trondheim, one of only two in Norway, and used it as a residence for German troops.

"Quisling took over his job with the explicit promise of changing the mentality of his nation. Newspapers and theater, church, school and literature were gradually brought under pressure to serve the grand idea of German propaganda: that after centuries of Western contamination Norway is now at last finding its way back to its real self. He had not only persuasion to apply, but all the methods and means of the Nazi machine, from the bribe to the thumb screw," wrote Halvdan Koht in The Voice of Norway, published in 1944. Throughout the Second World War, Quisling collaborated with the Nazis and tried to impose their agenda on Norwegian society. This was met with passive resistance, general strikes, and large-scale industrial sabotage. The Quisling government responded with martial law and internment.

The Germans installed Quisling as prime minister on February 1, 1942. In June of 1942, his government forced the registration of all Jews. Four months later, all Jewish property was confiscated. On October 25, 1942, Jewish men over the age of 16 were sent to Auschwitz, a German concentration camp in Poland. Jewish women and children followed them on November 25. Of the 770 people deported, 740 were killed in the extermination camps. Only 12 returned. Quisling also used terrorist methods to deal with those loyal to the king.

On April 30, 1945, when Hitler committed suicide, thousands of German soldiers were stationed in Norway. On May 8th, the leader of the resistance movement accepted their surrender at the Akershus Fortress in Oslo and Quisling was arrested. He was found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death. Quisling was shot in Oslo on October 24, 1945.

Quisling has the dubious distinction of giving a new word to the English language. The noun "quisling" means a traitor who serves as the puppet of the enemy. The word came into use not long after the Germans invaded Norway. "To writers, the word quisling is a gift from the gods. If they had been ordered to invent a new word for traitor they could hardly have hit upon a more brilliant combination of letters," wrote The (London) Times. Plans exist to make Quisling's former home into a Holocaust memorial and human rights center.

Further Reading

Dahl, Hans Fredrik, Quisling: A Study in Treachery, Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Hoidal, Oddvar K., Quisling: A Study in Treason, Norwegian University Press, 1989.

Kersaudy, Francois, Norway 1940, St. Martin's Press, 1991.

Koht, Halvdan and Sigmund Skard, The Voice of Norway, Columbia University Press, 1944.

Hurrell, Greg, "Why Did Quisling Betray Norway?," Wincent's Web Site, http://dove.net.au/%7Eghurrell/docs/quisling.html, (January 19, 2000).

"Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian Traitor," Museum of Tolerance Online: Multimedia Learning Center, http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/text/x20/xm2068.html, (January 19, 2000).

From 1922--1930 Quisling worked for the League of Nations providing aid to starving peasants in the Ukraine and on similar projects in Bulgaria, the Balkans, and Armenia. By the time he left the Soviet Union in 1929, he had decided that Communism and Bolshevism were threats to Norway.

In 1931 Quisling co-founded the Nordic Folk Awakening movement, which mirrored Nazi ideology. He believed that Norway needed strong leaders to protect individual rights, and that the Jews were impure and a threat to his ideal society. From 1931--1933 he served as Minister of Defense; in May 1933 he founded a fascist political party called National Unity with its own youth movement and bodyguard corps called the "Hird." However, Quisling was not elected to the parliament. Thus, he soon turned to Nazi Germany for support.

In December 1939 Quisling met with Adolf Hitler and Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg. He was guaranteed German funds and moral support. In exchange, Quisling invited the Nazis to occupy Norway. The Germans invaded Norway in April 1940; Quisling openly met them and declared a new government with himself as prime minister. His traitorous behavior prompted the London Times to use his name as a synonym for all treason and collaboration.

However, the Germans rapidly became discontented with Quisling and kicked him out of office after just a week. The new government retained many of Quisling's people but was really run by the Germans. Quisling maintained leadership of the National Unity Party and for two years, he unofficially worked behind the scenes. In February 1942 a national government was established with Quisling as minister-president. However, his actual powers were limited. He aspired to make a treaty with Germany that would give his government true authority and independence. However, he never succeeded, and was always dependent on the Germans.

After the Liberation of Norway, Quisling was arrested and put on trial. He was found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed on October 24, 1945.

A Norwegian military officer and politician of the twentieth century. He collaborated with the Germans in their conquest of Norway in World War II; the Germans rewarded him by making him leader of the German-controlled government of the country. After the German defeat, the Norwegian government had Quisling tried for treason and executed.

Vidkun Quisling
Minister President of Norway
In office 1 February 1942 – 9 May 1945
Minister of Defence
In office 1931 – 1933
Prime Minister	Peder Kolstad (1931–1932) Jens Hundseid (1932–1933)
Preceded by	Torgeir Anderssen-Rysst
Succeeded by	Jens Isak Kobro
Born	18 July 1887(1887-07-18) Fyresdal, Telemark, Norway
Died	24 October 1945 (aged 58) Oslo, Norway
Political party	Agrarian Party (1933) Nasjonal Samling (1933–45)
Spouse(s)	Maria Vasilijevna Quisling

Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonssøn Quisling (18 July 1887 – 24 October 1945) was a Norwegian army officer and politician. He worked with Fridtjof Nansen during the famine in the Soviet Union, and served as Minister of Defence in the Bondepartiet government 1931-1933. In 1933 he founded the nationalist party Nasjonal Samling ("National Gathering"), and during World War II, from 1942 to 1945, he served as Minister-President of the collaborationist Norwegian government, after being appointed by the German authorities. After the war he was tried for high treason and subsequently executed by firing squad. Today in Norway and other parts of the world, "Quisling" has become synonymous with "traitor".

Contents 1 Early life 2 Religion and metaphysical yearnings 3 The Nasjonal Samling party 4 German invasion and coup d'état 5 Arrest and trial 6 'Quisling' 7 Footnotes 8 Further reading 8.1 In Norwegian 8.2 In English 9 See also

Early life

Quisling was the son of a Church of Norway pastor and genealogist, Jon Lauritz Quisling, who preferred to be called "Qvisling", from Fyresdal. Other ancient names of the family were "Quislinus" or "Quislin"^{[citation needed]}. Both of his parents belonged to old and distinguished families of Telemark.

Quisling had a flair for mathematics, and in his early teens had sent in corrections to a national mathematical textbook. Impressed by the age of the boy, the editors made the corrections, and included his name and some adulation as encouragement for other young boys to pay attention to their mathematics. After the war, editions kept the corrections and adulation, but changed all references to his name to en gutt ("a boy").

His early life was varied and successful; he became the country's best war-academy cadet upon graduation in 1911, and achieved the rank of major in the Norwegian army. He worked with Fridtjof Nansen in the Soviet Union during the famine of the 1920s.^[1] In 1923, he married Maria Vasilevna Pasechnikova (Russian: Мари́я Васи́льевна Па́сечникова), a native of Kharkov born in 1900 and known to her intimates as "Mara". For his services in looking after British interests after having broken diplomatic relations with the Bolshevik government, the United Kingdom in 1929 awarded him the CBE (which was revoked by King George VI in 1940).^[2] He later served as defense minister in the Agrarian governments from 1931 to 1933.^[3]

Religion and metaphysical yearnings

As a child, Quisling was already interested in religion and metaphysics, and his ponderings upon this subject never abated. He went as far as expounding his own religion, called Universalism, an elaboration and development of sorts of Christianity. It is presented as an addendum in the book containing the extant diaries and letters of Maria Quisling.

The Nasjonal Samling party

On 17 May 1933, Norwegian Constitution Day, Quisling and lawyer Johan Bernhard Hjort formed Nasjonal Samling ("National Unity"), the Norwegian fascist political party. Nasjonal Samling had an anti-democratic, Führerprinzip-based political structure, and Quisling was to be the party's Fører (Norwegian: "leader", equivalent of the German "Führer"). He was sometimes referred to as "the Hitler of Norway". The party went on to have modest successes: in the election of 1933, four months after it was formed, it garnered 27,850 votes (approximately 2%), following support from the Norwegian Farmers' Aid Association, with which Quisling had connections from his time as a member of the Agrarian government. However, as the party line changed from a religiously rooted one to a more pro-Nazi and anti-Semitic policy from 1935 on, church support waned, and in the 1936 elections the party received fewer votes than in 1933. The party became increasingly extremist, and party membership dwindled to an estimated 2,000 before the German invasion, but under the German occupation, by 1945, some 45,000 Norwegians had become members of the party.

German invasion and coup d'état

See also: Quisling regime

Norway and World War II
Key events
Weserübung Norwegian Campaign Elverum Authorization Midtskogen · Vinjesvingen Occupation · Resistance Camps · Holocaust · Telavåg Martial law in Trondheim (1942) Festung Norwegen Heavy water sabotage Post-war purge
People
Haakon VII of Norway Johan Nygaardsvold Carl Joachim Hambro Carl Gustav Fleischer Otto Ruge Jens Christian Hauge
Vidkun Quisling · Jonas Lie Sverre Riisnæs · Josef Terboven Wilhelm Rediess · Nikolaus von Falkenhorst
Organizations
Milorg · XU · Linge Osvald Group · Nortraship
Nasjonal Samling
Supported legitimate exiled  government.
Supported German occupants  and Nasjonal Samling party.

Quisling in 1943.

Heinrich Himmler visited Norway in 1941. Seated (from left to right) are Quisling, Himmler, Josef Terboven, the Nazi gauleiter who was the effective ruler of Norway during the occupation, and General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, the commander of the German forces in Norway.

On 9 April 1940, Germany invaded Norway by air and sea, intending to capture King Haakon VII and the government of Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold; however, alert to the invasion, Foreign Minister C.J. Hambro arranged their evacuation to Hamar.^[4] The cruiser Blücher, which had been carrying most of the personnel intended to take over running Norway was sunk by Norwegian shore defences in Oslofjord. The Germans had expected the Government to surrender, and to have its replacement ready, but neither happened.

In the morning, two German embassy officials (Hans Wilhelm Scheidt and Richard Schreiber) visited Quisling to encourage him to form a government, and Quisling drew up a list of Ministers. In the afternoon he telephoned some coastal batteries urging them to cease resistance to German forces. At 7:32 PM, without waiting for recognition, Quisling burst into the NRK studios in Oslo and broadcast a proclamation naming himself Prime Minister and ordering all resistance to halt at once. In hindsight, this treasonous act doomed any chance of persuading Norway to surrender (as Denmark had the previous day).^[5] It was claimed at the time that Quisling's seizure of power in a puppet government had been part of the German plan.^[6]

The next day the German minister Curt Bräuer traveled to Elverum, Norway where the legitimate government had moved. He demanded that King Haakon appoint Quisling Prime Minister and return to Oslo. In an emotional meeting with the cabinet, King Haakon let it be known he would sooner abdicate than appoint any government headed by Quisling. By this time, the news of Quisling's treason had reached Elverum. The government unanimously voted to advise the king not to recognize Quisling and urged the people to continue to resist. With no popular support, Quisling was no longer of use to Hitler.

Later that same month he tried again to organize a government under Josef Terboven, who had been installed as Reichskommissar, reporting directly to Hitler. The relationship between Quisling and Terboven was tense, however, and Quisling was unable to find any prominent Norwegians willing to serve as ministers in his Cabinet.

On 25 September 1940 Gauleiter Terboven broadcast to the Norwegian people. Terboven said he had tried in vain to negotiate with the old parties and that the Quisling movement would be the only one tolerated in the future.^[7][8]

Terboven, seeing an advantage in having a Norwegian in an apparent position of power, declared the monarchy to be "suspended"^[9] and named Quisling to the post of Minister President of the National Government in 1942, a position the self-appointed Fører assumed on 1 February.

Arrest and trial

See also: Legal purge in Norway after World War II

Quisling stayed in power until he was arrested on 9 May 1945 at Møllergata 19 in Oslo. He lived in a mansion on Bygdøy in Oslo that he called "Gimle", after the place in Norse mythology where survivors of Ragnarok were to live. The house, now called Villa Grande, is a Holocaust museum.^[10]

In the course of the treason trials, Quisling was convicted of high treason (September 10)^[11] and, along with two other Nasjonal Samling leaders, Albert Viljam Hagelin and Ragnar Skancke, was sentenced to death. He was executed by firing squad at Akershus Fortress on 24 October 1945.^[12] The charges were based on his coup d'état in April 1940, his revocation of the mobilization order, his encouragement of Norwegians to serve in the Norwegian SS division, his assistance in the deportation of Jews, his responsibility for the execution of Norwegian patriots and a number of other charges.

His widow Mara lived in Oslo until her death in 1980.^[13] They had no children.^[14]

'Quisling'

Main article: Quisling

Look up quisling in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

In English and some European languages, the term "quisling" has become a synonym for traitor, particularly one who collaborates with invaders. The term was coined by the British newspaper The Times in its leader of 15 April, 1940, entitled "Quislings everywhere." The editorial asserted,

To writers, the word Quisling is a gift from the gods. If they had been ordered to invent a new word for traitor... they could hardly have hit upon a more brilliant combination of letters. Actually it contrives to suggest something at once slippery and tortuous.^[15]

The noun has survived; for a while during and after the war, the back-formed verb "to quisle" (pronounced "quizzle") was used. One who was "quisling" was committing treason.^[16]

Footnotes

1. ^ "Quisling Victory". Time Magazine. 30 October 1933. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,754021,00.html. Retrieved 17 January 2009. 
2. ^ "People". Time Magazine: p. 1. 24 June 1940. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764097,00.html. Retrieved 18 January 2009. 
3. ^ "Tale of Two Brothers". Time Magazine: p. 2. 22 April 1940. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,763850-2,00.html. Retrieved 18 January 2009. 
4. ^ Paul M. Hayes, "Quisling" (David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1971), p. 211.
5. ^ Paul M. Hayes, "Quisling" (David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1971), p. 212-7.
6. ^ Current Biography 1940, pp 669-70
7. ^ Shirer, William L, "Berlin Diary", 1941, Hamish Hamilton, London,
8. ^ ""Commission State"". Time Magazine: p. 2. 7 October 1940. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,802044-2,00.html. Retrieved 18 January 2009. 
9. ^ World Statesmen - Norway
10. ^ http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-112640182.html
11. ^ nytimes
12. ^ "Justice--I". Time Magazine. 5 November 1945. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852394,00.html. 
13. ^ Yourieff, Alexandra Andreevna Voronine; Kirsten A. Seaver (2007). In Quisling's shadow: the memoirs of Vidkun Quisling's first wife, Alexandra. Hoover Institution Press. p. 457. ISBN 978-0817948320. http://books.google.com/books?id=kaiyKJZxjBUC&pg=PR12&lpg=PR12&dq=maria+quisling+oslo+died+1980&source=bl&ots=qa2rFAAx3J&sig=JEvV74qj7nA5rDah45IPy0hZAdA&hl=en&ei=Nz3dSoTYC4_usQPZ1N3iDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CBwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=1980&f=false. Retrieved 2009-10-19. 
14. ^ Dahl, Hans Fredrik (1999). Quisling: A Study in Treachery. Cambridge University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0521496971. http://books.google.com/books?id=GaR-7WVcVjgC&pg=PA129&dq=maria+quisling+childless&ei=Qj_dSsuuMZX6lQSlvoX-Bw#v=snippet&q=childless&f=false. Retrieved 2009-10-19. 
15. ^ "Quislers". Time Magazine: p. 1. 29 April 1940. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,794977,00.html. Retrieved 18 January 2009. 
16. ^ Current Biography 1940, p669

Further reading

In Norwegian

• Dahl, Hans Fredrik (1991) Quisling - En fører blir til, Oslo : Aschehoug, ISBN 82-03-15632-0 (BIBSYS)
• Dahl, Hans Fredrik (1992) Quisling - En fører for fall, Oslo : Aschehoug, ISBN 82-03-16960-0 (BIBSYS)
• Borgen, Per Otto (1999) Norges statsministre, Oslo: Aschehoug, ISBN 82-03-22389-3 (BIBSYS)

In English

• Høidal, Oddvar K. (1989) Quisling: A study in treason, Oslo : Norwegian University Press (Universitetsforlaget), ISBN 82-00-18400-5
• Dahl, Hans Fredrik (1999) "Quisling: A study in treachery", Stanton-Ife, A.-M. (transl.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-49697-7

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Vidkun Quisling

• Operation Weserübung
• Norwegian campaign
• British campaign in Norway
• Norwegian resistance movement

Political offices
Preceded by Torgeir Anderssen-Rysst	Minister of Defence 1931–1933	Succeeded by Jens Isak de Lange Kobro
Preceded by Office created	Minister President of Norway 1942–1945	Succeeded by Office abolished

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au travail · Münchener Beobachter · Novopress · NS Månedshefte · Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift · Das Schwarze Korps · Der Stürmer · Il Popolo d'Italia · Sfarmă-Piatră · Signal (magazine) · Vlajka · Völkischer Beobachter Related topics Art of the Third Reich · Fascist architecture · Heroic realism · Nazi architecture · Nazism and cinema · Nazi plunder   Organizations Institutional Ahnenerbe · Chamber of Fasci and Corporations · Grand Council of Fascism · Imperial Way Faction · Italian Nationalist Association · Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen · Quadrumvirs Activist German American Bund  · Russian Fascist Organization  · Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (boys)  · Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (girls)  · Union of Fascist Little Ones Paramilitary Albanian Militia · Black Brigades · Blackshirts · Blueshirts · Einsatzgruppen · Gold shirts · Greenshirts · Greyshirts · Hitler Youth · Heimwehr · Iron Wolf (Lithuania) · Red Shirts (Mexico) · Silver Legion of America · 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