Vinland

Vinland was the name given to an area of North America by the Norseman, about the year 1000 CE.

In 1960 archaeological evidence of the only known Norse settlement^[1] in North America (outside of Greenland) was found at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of the island of Newfoundland, in what is now the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Although this proved conclusively the Vikings' pre-Columbian discovery of North America, whether this exact site is the Vinland of the Norse accounts is still a subject of debate.

There is a consensus among scholars that the Vikings did reach North America, approximately five centuries prior to the voyages of Christopher Columbus.^[2]

Etymology

The name Vinland has been interpreted in two ways: traditionally as Vínland ("wine-land") and more recently as Vinland (meadow- or pasture-land).

Wine-land

The earliest etymology of "Vinland" is found in Adam of Bremen's 11th-century Latin Descriptio insularum Aquilonis ("Description of the Northern Islands"): "Moreover, he has also reported one island discovered by many in that ocean, which is called Winland, for the reason that grapevines grow there by themselves, producing the best wine." (Praeterea unam adhuc insulam recitavit a multis in eo repertam occeano, quae dicitur Winland, eo quod ibi vites sponte nascantur, vinum optimum ferentes). The implication is that the first element is Old Norse vín (Latin vinum), "wine".

This explanation is essentially repeated in the 13th-century Grœnlendinga saga, which provides a circumstantial account of the discovery of Vinland, and its being named from the grapes (vínber) found there.

Pasture-land

A more recent interpretation of the name Vinland is that the first element is not vín but vin, an Old Norse word with the meaning 'meadow, pasture'. (Proto-Norse winju.) The word is a common suffix in old Norwegian place names - but because it mostly has been weakened (into -in, -en, -e, -a, and more), it is often hard to recognize in its modern forms. See, for example, Hornindal; Bergen, Løten, Røyken, Sande, Skodje, Time; Halsa; Bodø; Gjerdrum.

Vin is a common name on old farms from Norse times in Norway, and present-day use of the word are Bjørgvin, the Norse (and Icelandic) name of Bergen, Norway, and Granvin, where -vin translates into 'pasture' in both. A poetic Norse name of the Danish island of Sjælland (Zealand) was Viney 'pasture island'. The word can also be a name in itself (see Vinje).

A cognate name also existed in Old English (Anglo-Saxon), in the name of the village Woolland in Dorset, England: This was written "Ƿinlande" in the 1086 Domesday Book, and it is interpreted as 'meadow land' or 'pasture land'.

The sagas

The main source of information about the Viking voyages to Vinland is derived from two Icelandic sagas, The Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders. These sagas were written down approximately 250 years after the settlement of Greenland and are open to considerable breadth of interpretation. Combining those two, it seems that there were possibly two separate attempts to establish a Norse settlement in Vinland, neither of which lasted for more than two years. The disbandment of the small Viking colony seems to have had several causes. Disagreements among the men about the few women that followed on the trip, and fighting with an unidentified group of indigenous people (called "skrælingar" in the Sagas) already living in the area, are both indicated in the written sources.

The two Sagas tell that after the settlement of Greenland by the Vikings, a merchant by the name of Bjarni Herjólfsson set sail from Iceland to Greenland to visit his father, a new settler in Greenland. His ship was blown off course by a storm and thus accidentally discovered a new land, presumably the east coast of North America, in 985 or 986. It was late in the summer, and he did not want to overwinter in this new land, which he noted was covered with forests, so he did not land and managed to reach Greenland before winter fell. He then afterwards told the story and sold ships to Leifr Eiríksson. With wood being in very short supply in Greenland, the settlers there were eager to explore the riches of this new land. Some years later Leifr Eiríksson explored this coast, and established a short-lived colony on a part of the coast that he called Vinland.

The first discovery made by Leif was, according to the stories, Helluland ("flatstone land"), possibly Baffin Island. Markland ("wood land"), possibly Labrador, was discovered next (there is some evidence that the tree line in northern Labrador has been diminished or eroded since Leifr's time)^{[citation needed]} and lastly Vinland. Vinland is possibly identifiable with the archaeological site of L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. The expedition included both families and livestock, and its aim was to found a new settlement. Straumfjörðr ("stream", possibly in reference to the strong currents of near-by Strait of Belle Isle and Belle Isle) was the name of the northern settlement and "Hóp" (lagoon) was the name for the warmer southern settlement. Only three Viking leaders actually overwintered in Vinland, the second being Thorvald Eiríksson, Leifr's brother, who was killed the second summer, and the third being Thorfinn Karlsefni, who led another expedition around 1010. However, according to the stories, the idea was soon abandoned due to conflicts with the skrælingar and among the Norsemen themselves. Further voyages for woodcutting seem to have been discussed even as late as the 1300s.^{[citation needed]}

Medieval geographers

The oldest surviving written record of Vinland is that by Adam of Bremen, a German (Saxon) geographer and historian, in his book Descriptio insularum Aquilonis of approximately 1075 (quoted above). To write it he visited the Danish king Svend Estridson, who had knowledge of the northern lands, and told him of the "islands" discovered by Norse sailors far out in the Atlantic, of which Vinland was the most remote. Unfortunately, Adam became confused between Helluland and Halagland, the northernmost part of Norway where the "midnight sun" is visible. He also spelled Vinland in Latin the same as Wendland, the German province which adjoins Denmark.^[3]

In the early 14th century, a geography encyclopedia called Geographica Universalis was compiled at Malmesbury Abbey in England, which was in turn used as a source for one of the most widely-circulated medieval English educational works, Polychronicon by Ralph Higden, a few years later. Both these works, with Adam of Bremen as a possible source, were confused about the location of what they called Wintland- the Malmesbury monk had it on the ocean, but east of Norway, while Higden put it west of Denmark but failed to explain the distance. Copies of Polychronicon commonly included a world map, on which Wintland was marked in the Atlantic Ocean near Iceland, but again much closer to the Scandinavian mainland than in reality. The name was explained in both texts as referring to the savage inhabitants' ability to tie the wind up in knotted cords, which they sold to sailors who could then undo a knot whenever they needed a good wind. Neither mentioned grapes, and the Malmesbury work specifically states that little grows there but grass and trees, which, interestingly, reflects the saga descriptions of the area round the main Norse expedition base.^[4]

Medieval Icelandic geographical concepts

More geographically correct were Icelandic texts from about the same time, which presented a clear picture of the northern countries as experienced by Norse explorers: north of Iceland a vast, barren plain (which we now know to be the Polar ice-cap) extended from Biarmeland (northern Russia) east of the White Sea, to Greenland, then further west and south were, in succession, Helluland, Markland and Vinland. The Icelanders had no knowledge of how far south Vinland extended, and they speculated that it might ultimately reach as far as Africa- except that if that was so, then the Atlantic was enclosed, and there would have to be a gap similar to that between Norway and Denmark, perhaps between Vinland and Markland, allowing the water to flow through (presumably based on their knowledge of tides, but possibly referring to ocean currents).^[5]

The "Historia Norwegiae" (History of Norway) compiled around 1200 does not refer directly to Vinland, and tries to reconcile information from Greenland with mainland European sources; in this text Greenland's territory extends so that it is "almost touching the African islands, where the waters of ocean flood in".^[6]

Modern geographers

16th century Icelanders realised that the "New World" which European geographers were calling "America" was the land described in their Vinland Sagas. The Skálholt Map, drawn in 1570 or 1590 but surviving only through later copies, shows Promontorium Winlandiae ("promontory/cape/foreland of Vinland") as a narrow cape with its northern tip at the same latitude as southern Ireland (NB: the scales of degrees in the map margins are inaccurate). This effective identification of northern Newfoundland with the northern tip of Vinland was taken up by later Scandinavian scholars such as bishop Hans Resen, but later, more detailed analysis of the saga texts made it clear that Vinland proper, where the grapes grew, was further south. Hence, while L'Anse aux Meadows is almost certainly the expedition base described in the sagas, the southernmost limit of the Norse exploration remains a subject of intense speculation. Samuel Eliot Morison (1971) suggested the southern part of Newfoundland, Erik Wahlgren (1986) Miramichi Bay in New Brunswick, and Icelandic scholar Pall Bergthorsson (1997) proposed New York.^[7]

Until the 19th Century, the idea of Viking settlement in North America was considered by historians to be the product of folk tales.^{[citation needed]} The first scholarly theory for the idea was put forth in 1837 by Danish literary historian and antiquarian Carl Christian Rafn in his book Antiquitates Americanæ. Rafn made an exhaustive examination of the sagas, as well as potential settlement sites on the North American coast and concluded that Vinland was a real place in North America that had been settled by the Norse.

Location

Historians do not agree on the location of Vinland. Rafn and Erik Wahlgren believed that Vinland was probably in New England. Newfoundland marine insurance agent and historian William A. Munn (1864-1939), after studying literary sources in Europe, suggested (in his 1914 book: "Wineland Voyages: Location of Helluland, Markland & Vinland") that the Vikings "went ashore at Lancey Meadows, as it is called today". In 1960 a Viking settlement was discovered by Helge and Anne Stine Ingstad at that exact spot, L'Anse aux Meadows in northern Newfoundland, and excavated during the 1960s and 1970s . It is most likely that this was Leifr's settlement, a "gateway" for the Norse Greenlanders to the rich lands further south, as carbon dating indicates that it was occupied around 1000 CE, and butternuts, which only grow south of the St. Lawrence, were found by the archaeologists.

Viking colonisation site at L'Anse-aux-Meadows, Newfoundland

L'Anse-aux-Meadows, Newfoundland

Those who believe Newfoundland is part of Vinland generally think that settlements farther south are unlikely, because maintaining a colony so far from the Norse homelands would have been far too difficult for the Vikings of the time. Iron and other needed resources would have been too difficult to sustain on any workable level, as the later English settlers in New England would find. Costly fights with Native populations so far from supply lines may have been another deterrent.

An argument for placing Vinland farther south is presented in Adam of Bremen's account. In his Descriptio insularum Aquilonis he wrote that the name Vinland comes from the grapevines growing there. He received this information from King Svend Estridson.

There are a number of theories to explain this discrepancy:

• It was an early marketing attempt, something like the naming of Greenland by Erik the Red. In this theory, Leif's naming of Markland and Vinland was to encourage others to explore and settle there.
• A theory subject to much debate among scholars is that there was a misinterpretation of short-i *Vinland as long-i Vínland, as described above. This theory can be combined with the previous one: Estridson might have embellished Adam's mistake if he believed it would increase the fame of Vinland for joint-financed ventures he would no doubt claim for himself. One problem with this theory is why the sagas outside of Adam of Bremen's account also refer to long-i Vínland, and mention vines as well. Since the sagas were written later, an explanation for this could be that the sagas were somehow influenced by Adam of Bremen's account.
• Alternatively Estridson was joking or lying, or even referring to similarly sounding Wendland instead in an earlier account, where grapes did grow, and this was later confused with Vinland by Adam of Bremen.
• Another theory is that we have not discovered the true location of Vinland yet, and it is further south, where grapes do grow. More subtly Vinland could be seen as a gateway or northern part, in reach of more temperate areas where grapes grew.
• Another possibility is that later, longer voyages further south, reporting Concord style grapes confused the story told about the settlement, as there were individuals of the crews who had ventured out on their own to return with tales.
• Still another possibility is that the reference is to any of the abundant berries in Newfoundland, including gooseberries or blueberries, which are both abundant near L'Anse-aux-Meadows (51°N) and are both suitable for winemaking. Blueberries look very much like small Black Corinth grapes, although they grow on bushes very unlike grape vines.
• Finally it has been speculated that grapes did in fact grow in Newfoundland (46°40′ - 51°35′N) in the past. The first recorded grapes were grown 2002, when a successful vineyard was established in Gambo, Newfoundland, 48°50'N.^[8] The time period of the Vinland settlement corresponds with the Medieval Warm Period (from about the 10th century to about the 14th century). Water temperatures in the northern hemisphere during this time were up to 1°C warmer, allowing the planting of vineyards as far north as the coastal zones of the Baltic Sea (ca. 56°N) and southern England (ca. 51°N). There are vineyards at 54°N in Lancashire and Yorkshire, northern England.

It is interesting to note that in 1535, when Jacques Cartier came to map and document the atlantic coast of Canada in his second voyage, the explorer crossed the Strait of Belle-Isle (where L'Anse aux Meadows is found) and entered the Saint Lawrence River (48°25′N) where he found plenty of grapevine ("vigne" in French) and nut-bearing trees along the river. He gave also the name of Île de Bacchus (now called Île d'Orléans (46°56′N) near Quebec City) and Île aux Coudres (47°24′N) ("Coudriers" is a French word meaning "nut tree") to two islands because of the abundance of wild grapes ("raisins" in French) and butternuts growing on them:

Icelle ysle contient environ trois lieues de long & deux de large: & est une moult bonne terre & grasse, plaine de beaulx & grandz arbres de plusieurs sortes: & entre autres y a plusieurs couldres franches que trouvasmes fort chargees de noisilles aussi grosses & de meilleur saveur que les nostres, mais ung peu plus dures. Et parce la nommasmes l'ysle es Couldres. [...] nous estans à ladicte ysle la trouvasmes plaine de fors beaulx arbres de la sorte des nostres. Et pareillement y trouvasmes force vignes, ce que n'avyons veu par cy devant à toute la terre, & par ce la nommasmes l'ysle de Bacchus. [...] Aussi vives que l'eaue plaine des beaulx arbres du monde: & tant de vignes chargez de raisins le long dudict fleuve, qu'il semble mieulx qu'elles ayent esté plantez de main d'homme que aultrement: mais par ce qu'elles ne sont cultivez ne taillez, ne sont les raisins si groz & si doulx que les nostres...^[9]

—Jacques Cartier

While the theory that Vinland was further south is a legitimate line of inquiry, for some the motivation to search Vinland further south have been more personal to justify or romanticize the Scandinavian colonization of areas in the present-day United States. There have been several instances where evidence of pre-Columbian Norse explorers in the United States has become a source of controversial debate, for example, the Kensington Runestone. However, the Maine Penny is regarded by many as a legitimate artifact. Alleged Runestones found throughout America are often used to attempt to show proof of pre-Columbian Norse settlement, but this is not thought to represent Vinland.

Proposed locations

Including some of the possibilities mentioned above, popular locations for the possible site of Vinland generally include, in order from north to south:

• Newfoundland 46°40′N to 51°35′N
• Anticosti Island 49°30′N
• Gaspé Peninsula 48°39′N
• northeast coast of New Brunswick 46°42N.
• Cape Breton Island 46°10′N
• coastal Maine 45°30′N (see Maine Penny)
• Nova Scotia 45°13′N
• Merrimac, Massachusetts 42°49′N
• Cambridge, Massachusetts^[10][11][12] Location: 42°22′23.82″N 71°8′3.17″W / 42.3732833°N 71.1342139°W / 42.3732833; -71.1342139.
• Cape Cod, Massachusetts 41°41′N
  • Follins Pond, between Dennis and Yarmouth
  • Waquoit Bay, between Falmouth and Mashpee
• Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island 41°36′N (see Newport Tower)
• Martha's Vineyard 41°24′N
• Nomans Land (Massachusetts) 41°15′N
• Nantucket 41°14′N

It should be borne in mind that the Greenlanders divided all of the mainland they discovered into just three regions, of which Vinland was the southernmost, so potentially it could include all of the above.

See also

• Tyrker

Notes

1. ^ Ingstad, Helge; Ingstad, Anne Stine (2001). The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse Settlement in L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Checkmark Books. ISBN 0-8160-4716-2.
2. ^ Jones, Gwyn (1986). The Norse Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, and North America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5160-8.
3. ^ Adam of Bremen, Descriptio insularum Aquilonis chapters 37-38 (in Latin)
4. ^ Michael Livingston "More Vinland maps and texts", Journal of Medieval History Vol. 30 no. 1, (March 2004) pp25-44. doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2003.12.001
5. ^ translations in: B.F. de Costa, The Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen, Albany NY, Munsell, 1890, online at northvegr
6. ^ Historia Norwegiae
7. ^ Gisli Sigurdsson, "The Quest for Vinland in Saga Scholarship", in William Fitzhugh & Elizabeth Ward (Eds.) Vikings: the North Atlantic Saga, Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution (2000) ISBN 1560989955
8. ^ Gambo vineyard website
9. ^ Cartier, Jacques (Reedited in 1863). Voyage de J. Cartier au Canada. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12356. 
10. ^ "Did Leif Erikson once live in Cambridge, Massachusetts?". The Straight Dope. http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleifinma.html. Retrieved 2008-08-09. 
11. ^ Horsford, Eben Norton (1892). The Landfall of Leif Erikson, A.D. 1000: And the Site of His Houses in Vineland. Damrell and Upham. http://books.google.com/books?id=5wNCAAAACAAJ&dq=The+Landfall+of+Leif+Erikson:+A.D.+1000. 
12. ^ Horsford, Eben Norton (1890). The Discovery of the Ancient City of Norumbega. Houghton, Mifflin. http://books.google.com/books?id=c2ETAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Discovery+of+the+Ancient+City+of+Norumbega. 

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Vinland.

• Parks Canada - L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site of Canada
• Vikings: The north Atlantic saga; Searching for archeological evidence of Vikings in Labrador and Newfoundland - from The Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History
• The Vikings in Newfoundland
• The Vinland Mystery - a National Film Board of Canada documentary
• "Where is Vinland?", Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History website
• Skálholt Map - in the Royal Library, Copenhagen, Denmark
• USDA distribution map of Juglans cinerea (butternut) Butternuts were found during excavations at the L'anse aux Meadows site

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