Warsaw Pact

Warsaw Pact (or Warsaw Treaty Organization) (1955-91), military alliance comprising eight states—Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the USSR—led by the USSR and throughout its 35-year history the principal opponent of and military threat to NATO.

Following the occupation of central Europe at the end of WW II, the USSR set up tame national armed forces in the countries it had occupied. Those of Poland were commanded, initially, by Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky, a Soviet marshal of Polish stock. Although some national characteristics were retained—and later became more pronounced—the armed forces of the states in Soviet-occupied zones were equipped and organized entirely on Soviet lines, were under Soviet command, and had Soviet occupation troops alongside them. In western Europe, the countries liberated at the end of the war retained their own armed forces, but these joined together voluntarily in 1949 as the NATO Alliance. At the Paris Conference in 1954, the Western European Union (WEU) was formed as a European pillar of NATO, and West Germany was invited to join, which it did the following year.

Partly in response to German accession to NATO, eight of the east European socialist countries met in Warsaw on 11 May. Yugoslavia did not attend and never joined. The Pact was signed on 14 May and came into effect on 5 June. Although nominally an alliance between sovereign states, the Warsaw Pact was quite different from NATO. The latter was, and remains, a voluntary alliance which requires consensus to act, although the USA is unquestionably the dominant power. The Warsaw Pact was run by the USSR and used as a cordon sanitaire. Its working language was Russian and the first C-in-C of Warsaw Pact armed forces, appointed in 1956, was the Soviet Koniev.

The Warsaw Treaty stressed the maintenance of international peace and security (Article 1). It proposed effective arms control measures (Article 2), and obliged member states to consult each other on all aspects of international relations (Article 3). Other alliances prejudicial to the interests of the Warsaw Pact were banned (Article 7). In the event of attack on any Warsaw Pact states they would have the right to individual or collective defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter (Article 4). This clause was cited to justify the invasion of Hungary in 1957 and of Czechoslovakia in 1968. In effect, this was the same as NATO's ‘an attack on one is an attack on all’. Like NATO, the Warsaw Pact was declaredly a defensive alliance. NATO never believed this, but it was NATO which expanded after the Pact dissolved, and which first attacked a sovereign state outside its own borders in 1999.

The Pact's military organization comprised the committee of defence ministers (KMO), the combined armed forces (OVS) and the combined command (OK). In addition to the combined command, there was a military committee of the combined armed forces, a combined armed forces headquarters—in Moscow—and a technical committee (TK). Commonality of equipment—all Soviet-designed, although some was later adapted and improved by the ‘Non-Soviet Warsaw Pact’ (NSWP) states—and of training and organization would probably have given the Warsaw Pact the advantage on the battlefield. By the 1980s the NSWP states were increasingly acquiring their own style and equipment. The Poles played a leading role in developing the idea of the operational manoeuvre group, while the Czechoslovaks built their own multiple rocket launchers and self-propelled (SP) guns. Following the collapse of the Berlin wall in 1989 and the unification of Germany, the Warsaw Pact was defunct—East Germany had been a member. In 1990 it was announced that it would be dissolved and the USSR ratified the decision at the end of 1991.

— Christopher Bellamy

The Warsaw Pact was created by the Soviet Union on 14 May 1955 as a political‐military alliance of European Communist states to counter the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO), particularly the entry of West Germany into NATO in 1955. Officially called the Warsaw Treaty Organization, the original eight members were Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. However, unlike NATO, the Warsaw Pact was a multinational rather than a multilateral military defense organization.

Following Soviet suppression of the Hungarian uprising in October 1956, Moscow reduced the influence of the pact's governing body, the multinational Political Consultative Council (PCC), and tightened its own central control. In the subsequent strains, some southern‐tier nations withdrew: Albania, which supported China in the Sino‐ Soviet split, stopped military cooperation in 1961 and left the pact in 1968 (following the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the pact's forces). Romania excluded Soviet troops and refused to participate in military exercises after 1965.

The Soviet Union controlled the alliance, provided 80 percent of the manpower, and bore more than 90 percent of the pact's defense expenditures for forces, which in the early 1980s reached 5.4 million troops. The USSR alone had nuclear weapons and strategic forces, and all nuclear warheads were in Soviet custody.

With declining economies, the shift in Soviet policy under reformer Mikhail Gorbachev, and the increasing independence of the East European nations, the Warsaw Pact lost cohesion in the 1980s. In 1987–88, the pact's doctrine was changed from offensive defense to one that emphasized nonoffensive defense. Following a Soviet proposal in 1987, NATO and the Warsaw Pact agreed in 1990 to substantial reduction of forces.

In 1990, responding to popular demand and the ending of the Cold War, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia demanded the removal of Soviet troops and refused to participate in future military exercises. East Germany left the pact that year with German unification. The military structure was officially ended by the PCC in March 1991; the political organization was terminated in July 1991.

Bibliography

• R. W. Clawson and L. S. Kaplan, eds., The Warsaw Pact: Political Purpose and Military Means, 1982.
• W. J. Lewis, The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine and Strategy, 1982.
• J. Simon, Warsaw Pact Forces: Problems of Command and Control, 1985.
• Neil Fodor, The Warsaw Treaty Organization: A Political and Organizational Analysis, 1990

A treaty of mutual defense and military aid signed at Warsaw on May 14, 1955 by Communist states of Europe under Soviet influence, in response to the admission of West Germany to NATO; collectively, the group of states which signed the treaty. Following changes in eastern Europe and the collapse of the Communist system, the pact was dissolved in 1991.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.

The Warsaw Pact, formally the ‘Warsaw Treaty Of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance’ was formed in May 1955. The immediate reason given for its formation was the Paris Agreements amongst the Western powers that included West Germany in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). To counterbalance this expansion of NATO, the Warsaw Pact set up a mutual defence organization, the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO), with a unified military command and headquarters in Moscow, which embraced the German Democratic Republic, as well as Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, and the Czechoslovak Republic.

In practice the Warsaw Pact enabled the Soviet Union to station troops in these satellite states. In several satellites, these troops became a focus of protest during anti-Soviet uprisings, as in Poland and Hungary in 1956. Hungary sought to leave the organization at the time, but failed. Similarly, Czechoslovakia failed to leave the Warsaw Pact in 1968, when the Soviet Union invoked the treaty against it to crush the Prague spring. Only Albania successfully withdrew from the pact in 1968, having developed closer links with China. The Warsaw Treaty Organization became defunct with the East European Revolutions in 1989, and the German Democratic Republic's withdrawal from it 1990 was a largely symbolic act, which foreshadowed the Warsaw Pact's final dissolution in July 1991.

— Petra Schleiter

For more information on Warsaw Pact, visit Britannica.com.

The Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO), also referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was created on May 14, 1955, by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. Officially known as the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, it was a Soviet-led political and military alliance intended to harness the potential of Eastern Europe to Soviet military strategy and to consolidate Soviet control of Eastern Europe during the Cold War. The organization was used to suppress dissent in Eastern Europe through military action. It never enlarged beyond its original membership, and was dissolved in 1991, prior to the disintegration of the Soviet Union itself.

The Soviet and East European governments presented the WTO as their response to the creation of the Western European Union and the integration of West Germany into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1955. Though often described as an alliance, the facade of collective decision-making in WTO masked the reality of Soviet political and military domination. The 1955 treaty established the Joint Command of the armed forces (Article 5) and the Political Consultative Committee (Article 6), both headquartered in Moscow. In practice, however, the Joint Command, as well as the Joint Staff drawn from the general staffs of the signatories, were part of the Soviet General Staff. Both the Pact's commander in chief and its chief of staff were Soviet officers. The Joint Armed Forces had no command structure, logistics, directorate of operations, or air defense network separate from the Soviet defense ministry.

Over the years the military structure of the Warsaw Pact was adjusted to reflect the evolution of Soviet strategy and changes in military technology. During the first decade of the organization's existence, political control over the non-Soviet forces was its principal focus. Following Stalin's death, East European militaries were partly renationalized, including the replacement of Soviet officers in high positions with indigenous personnel, and a renewed emphasis on professional training. The Polish October of 1956, and the Hungarian revolt that same year, raised serious concerns in Moscow about the reliability of non-Soviet Warsaw Pact forces.

In the 1960s the lessons learned from de-Stalinization, as well as Albania's defection from the Warsaw Pact, brought about greater integration of the WTO through joint military exercises, intensified training, and the introduction of new Soviet equipment. The most significant reorganization of the WTO took place in 1969, including the addition of the Committee of Defense Ministers, the Military Council, the Military Scientific Technical Council, and the Technical Committees. These and subsequent changes allowed increased participation from the East Europeans in decision making, and helped the Soviets better coordinate weapons research, development, and production with the East Europeans.

In addition to its external defensive role against NATO, the Warsaw Pact served to maintain cohesion in the Soviet bloc. It was used to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, and again to prepare for an invasion of Poland in 1980 or 1981 if the Polish regime failed to suppress the Solidarity movement. The Warsaw Pact was also an instrument of Soviet policy in the Third World. In the 1970s and 1980s the Soviet Union relied on several non-Soviet WTO members to assist client states in Africa and the Middle East.

The alliance began to unravel with the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika in the Soviet Union, and his attendant redefinition of Soviet-East European relations. Though the alliance was renewed in 1985, as required by the treaty, deteriorating economic conditions and the rising national aspirations in Eastern Europe put its future in question. The Soviet military attempted to adjust to the shifting political landscape. In 1987 the WTO modified its doctrine to emphasize its defensive character, but this and other proposed changes proved insufficient to arrest the decomposition of the alliance. The key development that hastened the WTO's demise was the unification of Germany, which constituted an irreparable breach in the Pact's security perimeter. Under pressure from Eastern Europe, the decision to abolish the military structures of the Pact was taken at a Political Consultative Committee meeting in Budapest in late February 1991; the remaining political structures were formally abolished on July 1, 1991.

The overall value of the Warsaw Pact to the Soviet Union during the Cold War remains a point of debate. Clearly, the organization legitimized the continued Soviet garrisoning of Eastern Europe and provided additional layers of political and military control. In addition, the potential contributions of the East European armed forces to Soviet military strategy, as well as the use of the members' territory, were significant assets. On the other hand, throughout the Warsaw Pact's existence, the ultimate reliability and cohesion of its non-Soviet members in a putative war against NATO remained in question. In addition, the declining ability of the East Europeans to contribute to equipment modernization, especially as their economies deteriorated in the late 1970s and 1980s, raised doubts about the overall quality of the WTO armed forces.

Bibliography

Herspring, Dale R. (1998). Requiem for an Army: The Demise of the East German Military. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

Johnson, A. Ross; Dean, Robert W.; and Alexiev, Alexander. (1982). East European Military Establishments: The Warsaw Pact Northern Tier. New York: Crane Russak.

Jones, Christopher D. (1981). Soviet Influence in Eastern Europe: Political Autonomy and the Warsaw Pact. New York: Praeger Publishers.

Michta, Andrew A. (1990). Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944 - 1988. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.

Nelson, Daniel N. (1986). Alliance Behavior in the Warsaw Pact. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

The Parallel History Project on NATO and the Warsaw Pact. (2003). <http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/index.htm>.

Volgyes, Ivan. (1982). The Political Reliability of the Warsaw Pact Armies: The Southern Tier. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

—ANDREW A. MICHTA

A military alliance of communist nations in eastern Europe. Organized in 1955 in answer to NATO, the Warsaw Pact included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. It disintegrated in 1991, in the wake of the collapse of communism in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

Warsaw Treaty Organization, Warsaw Pact Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи
Seal of Warsaw Pact
Members of Warsaw Pact from 1956 to 1968
Formation	May 14, 1955
Extinction	July 1, 1991
Type	Military alliance
Headquarters	Moscow, Soviet Union
Membership	7 member states, 8 at begining
Official languages	Russian
Supreme Commander	Viktor Kulikov (Last Supreme Commander)

Not to be confused with the Warsaw Convention, which is an agreement about airlines' financial liability and the Treaty of Warsaw (1970) between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland.

The Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization, officially named the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (Russian: Dogovor o druzhbe, sotrudnichestve i vzaimnoy pomoshchi), was a military alliance of socialist states in Central and Eastern Europe. It was established on 14 May, 1955 in Warsaw, Poland. While Soviet Union claimed to counter the potential threat from the NATO alliance and as retaliation due to the integration of a "re-militarized" West Germany into NATO on 9 May, 1955 via ratification of the Paris Peace Treaties, the organisation de facto served as a tool for keeping control over countries taken over after Second World War by the Soviets and to intervene military against any attempts the other states took to free themselves of the political hegemony of their own Communist Parties. The Pact lasted throughout the Cold War until certain member nations began withdrawing in 1989, following the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and political changes in the Soviet Union. The treaty was signed in Warsaw on May 14, 1955 and official copies were made in Russian, Polish, Czech and German. This treaty was modeled on the NATO treaty. There was a political Consultative Committee. Followed by a civilian secretary general. Down the chain of command there was a military commander in chief and a combined staff. The similarities between the two international organizations ended there. ^[1]

Members

•  Soviet Union
•  Albania (withdrew its support in 1961 over ideological differences, formally left in 1968)
• Bulgaria
•  Czechoslovakia
•  East Germany
• Hungary
• Poland
• Romania

Presidential Palace in Warsaw, in 1955 known as Governor's Palace (Pałac Namiestnikowski), where the Warsaw Pact was signed

All the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe were members except Yugoslavia, which never signed, and Albania, which withdrew. Members of the Warsaw Pact pledged to defend each other if one or more of the members were attacked. The treaty also stated that relations among the signatories were based on mutual noninterference in internal affairs and respect for national sovereignty and independence. The noninterference rule would later be de facto violated with the Soviet interventions in Hungary (Hungarian Revolution, 1956) and Czechoslovakia (Prague Spring, 1968). In both cases Soviets claimed to have been invited, and thus the rules were not considered formally violated ^{[citation needed]}.

Albania stopped supporting the alliance in 1961 as a result of the Sino-Soviet split in which the hard-line Stalinist government in Albania sided with China, and officially withdrew from the pact in 1968.

On 24 September 1990, East Germany signed a treaty with the Soviet Union ending East Germany's membership in the Warsaw Pact and on 3 October 1990, reunited with West Germany.

Structure

The Warsaw Pact was divided into two branches: the Political Consultative Committee, which coordinated all non-military activities, and the Unified Command of Pact Armed Forces, which had authority over the troops assigned to it by member states and was headed by the Supreme Commander, who at the same time was the First Deputy Minister of Defence of the USSR. The head of the Warsaw Pact Unified Staff was the First Deputy Head of General Staff of the Ministry of Defence of the USSR.^[2] The Warsaw Pact's headquarters were in Moscow. Despite the fact there were two branches in charge of the armed forces they still reported to the party. No military action could be carried out without the party's approval.^[3]

Supreme Commanders

	Name	Term began	Term ended
1.	Marshal of the Soviet Union Ivan Konev	May 14, 1955	1960
2.	Marshal of the Soviet Union Andrei Grechko	1960	1967
3.	Marshal of the Soviet Union Ivan Yakubovsky	1967	November 30 1976
4.	Marshal of the Soviet Union Viktor Kulikov	1977	1989
5.	General of the Army Petr Lushev	February 15 1989	1991

Heads of Unified Staff

	Name	Term began	Term ended
1.	General of the Army Aleksei Antonov	1955	1962
2.	General of the Army Pavel Batov	1962	1965
3.	General of the Army Mikhail Kazakov	1965	1968
4.	General of the Army Sergei Shtemenko	1968	1976
5.	General of the Army Anatoly Gribkov	1976	1989
6.	General of the Army Vladimir Lobov	1989	1990

History

Borders of NATO (blue) and Warsaw Pact (red) states during the Cold war era.

Authors and people alike did not believe that the Iron Curtain would ever fall. Here Malcolm Mackintosh is quoted as saying: “The Soviet Union will never give up its political and military control over Eastern Europe; the buffer zone is here to stay.” ^[4]

The Soviet Union claimed that the May 1955 creation of the Warsaw Pact was done in reaction to the induction of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO in that same year. This claim's validity is weakened by the fact that at the time some senior members of all non-Soviet signatory governments were Russian military officers. The pact formalized the Soviet Union's position as head of a socialist bloc of states, and replaced bilateral relations with a multilateral framework.[1]

During the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the government, led by Prime Minister Imre Nagy, announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. In response, Soviet troops entered Hungary, and crushed the uprising in two weeks, using the Warsaw Pact as a justification. Tanks were sent in from Romania, apart from this no other Warsaw Pact country took part in the invasion.

Warsaw Pact forces were utilized at times, such as during the 1968 Prague Spring when they invaded Czechoslovakia to overthrow the reform movement that was being led by Alexander Dubček's government. Lieutenant General Václav Prchlík had already denounced the Warsaw Pact in a televised news conference as an unequal alliance and declared that the Czechoslovak Army was prepared to defend the country's sovereignty by force, if necessary. On August 20, 1968, a force consisting of 23 Soviet Army divisions entered Czechoslovakia. Taking part in the invasion were also one Hungarian and two Polish divisions along with one Bulgarian brigade. Romania refused to contribute troops. Two divisions of the East German National People's Army were stationed at the border with Czechoslovakia but did not participate directly in the invasion, owing to memories of Hitler's 1938 annexation of the Sudetenland and later the subjugation of the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939. The East Germans, however, provided logistical support to the invasion and some East German forces, such as liaison officers, signal troops and officers of the Ministry of State Security participated directly in the invasion.

This intervention was explained by the Brezhnev Doctrine, which stated "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved to itself the right to define "socialism" and "capitalism". Thus, "socialism" was defined according to the Soviet model, and anything significantly different from this model was considered to be a step towards capitalism.

Soviet poster: "United, We Are Invincible! (35 Years of the Warsaw Pact)"

After the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Albania protested by formally leaving the Warsaw Pact, although it had stopped supporting the Pact as early as 1961. The Romanian leader, Nicolae Ceauşescu denounced the invasion as a violation of both international law and of the Warsaw Pact's principle of mutual non-interference in internal affairs, saying that collective self-defense against external aggression was the only valid mission of the Warsaw Pact.

In 1981 a large-scale exercise was conducted by Warsaw Pact forces at the time of Solidarity crisis in Soviet controlled Poland. There is a debate regarding the possibility that the exercise was a preparation for Soviet invasion against Poland, aimed at crushing the Polish pro-independence movement[2].

NATO and the Warsaw Pact countries never engaged each other in armed conflict, but fought the Cold War for more than 35 years often through 'proxy wars'. In December 1988, Mikhail Gorbachev, then leader of the Soviet Union, proposed the so-called Sinatra Doctrine which stated that the Brezhnev Doctrine would be abandoned and that the Soviet Union's European allies could do as they wished. Soon thereafter, a series of political changes swept across Central and Eastern Europe, leading to the end of European Communist states.

There are many examples of soldiers of the Warsaw Pact serving alongside NATO soldiers on operational deployments under the auspices of the United Nations, for example Canadian and Polish soldiers both served on the UNEFME (United Nations Emergency Force, Middle East - also known as UNEF II) mission, and Polish and Canadian troops also served together in Vietnam on the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS).

One historical curiosity is that after German reunification in October 1990, the new united Germany was a member of NATO (East Germany's Warsaw Pact membership ended with reunification), but still had Soviet (later Russian) troops stationed in its eastern territory until mid-1994.

After 1989, the newly independent governments in Central and Eastern Europe were no interested in remaining within a structure that allowed the Soviets safeguard Communist control in their countries, and in January 1991 Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland announced that they would withdraw all support by 1 July 1991. Bulgaria followed suit in February 1991, and it became clear that the Pact was effectively dead. The Warsaw Pact was officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague on 1 July 1991. Vaclav Havel (the former President of Czechoslovakia), counts the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact as his greatest accomplishment, according to his recent memoir To The Castle and Back. (See also Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe)

Post-Warsaw Pact

On 1 May 2004, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovakia became members of the European Union. This group was followed in 2007 by Romania and Bulgaria.

In November 2005 Poland decided to make its military archives regarding the Warsaw Pact publicly available through the Institute of National Remembrance. About 1,300 documents were declassified in January 2006 with the remaining approximately 100 documents being evaluated for future declassification by a historical commission. Finally, 30 were released, with 70 remaining classified as they involved issues with the current strategic situation of the Polish military. It was revealed in declassified documents that, until the 1980s, the Warsaw Pact's military plans in the case of war with the West consisted of a swift land offensive whose objective would have been to secure Western Europe quickly (using nuclear weapons if necessary). Poland itself was home to 178 nuclear assets, growing to 250 in the late eighties. Warsaw Pact commanders made very few plans for the possibility of fighting a defensive war on their own territory. ^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Collective Security Treaty Organization (treaty between 6 post Soviet states)

References

This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain.

• The Warsaw Pact
• Modern History Sourcebook: The Warsaw Pact
• Parallel History Project on NATO and the Warsaw Pact

1. ^ Arlene Idol Broadhurst. 1982. The Future of European Alliance systems. Westview Press.Boulder, Colorado p.137
2. ^ Fes'kov, V. I., Kalashnikov, K. A., Golikov, V. I. Soviet Army in Cold War Years (1945-2007), Tomsk: Tomsk University Publisher, 2004, p. 6
3. ^ Arlene Idol Broadhurst. 1982. The Future of European Alliance systems. Westview Press.Boulder, Colorado P.151
4. ^ Arlene Idol Broadhurst. 1982. The Future of European Alliance systems. Westview Press.Boulder, Colorado P.145

Further reading

• Mastny, Vojtech and Malcolm Byrne (eds.). A Cardboard Castle: An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955-1991. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2005. 726 pp.
• Umbach, Frank. Das rote Bündnis: Entwicklung und Zerfall des Warschauer Pakts, 1955-1991. Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag, 2005. 701 pp. (German)
• The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine and Strategy, Lewis, William J.; Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis; 1982. ISBN 0-07-031746-1. This book presents an overview of all the Warsaw Pact armed forces as well as a section on Soviet strategy, a model land campaign which the Soviet Union could have conducted against NATO, a section on vehicles, weapons and aircraft, and a full-color section on the uniforms, nations badges and rank-insignia of all the nations of the Warsaw Pact.
• Havel, Václav To the Castle and Back New York: Alfred A Knopf, 2007.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Warsaw Pact

• Documents of the Warsaw Pact archives, Parallel History Project on NATO and the Warsaw Pact (PHP)

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