Processes for formulating and disseminating information about future weather conditions based upon the collection and analysis of meteorological observations. Weather forecasts may be classified according to the space and time scale of the predicted phenomena. Atmospheric fluctuations with a length of less than 100 m (330 ft) and a period of less than 100 s are considered to be turbulent. The study of atmospheric turbulence is called micrometeorology; it is of importance for understanding the diffusion of air pollutants and other aspects of the climate near the ground. Standard meteorological observations are made with sampling techniques that filter out the influence of turbulence. Common terminology distinguishes among three classes of phenomena with a scale that is larger than the turbulent microscale: the mesoscale, synoptic scale, and planetary scale. See also Micrometeorology.
The mesoscale includes all moist convection phenomena, ranging from individual cloud cells up to the convective cloud complexes associated with prefrontal squall lines, tropical storms, and the intertropical convergence zone. Also included among mesoscale phenomena are the sea breeze, mountain valley circulations, and the detailed structure of frontal inversions. Most mesoscale phenomena have time periods less than 12 h. The prediction of mesoscale phenomena is an area of active research. Most forecasting methods depend upon empirical rules or the short-range extrapolation of current observations, particularly those provided by radar and geostationary satellites. Forecasts are usually couched in probabilistic terms to reflect the sporadic character of the phenomena. Since many mesoscale phenomena pose serious threats to life and property, it is the practice to issue advisories of potential occurrence significantly in advance. These “watch” advisories encourage the public to attain a degree of readiness appropriate to the potential hazard. Once the phenomenon is considered to be imminent, the advisory is changed to a “warning,” with the expectation that the public will take immediate action to prevent the loss of life. See also Mesometeorology; Squall.
The next-largest scale of weather events is called the synoptic scale, because the network of meteorological stations making simultaneous, or synoptic, observations serves to define the phenomena. The migratory storm systems of the extratropics are synoptic-scale events, as are the undulating wind currents of the upper-air circulation which accompany the storms. The storms are associated with barometric minima, variously called lows, depressions, or cyclones. The synoptic method of forecasting consists of the simultaneous collection of weather observations, and the plotting and analysis of these data on geographical maps. An experienced analyst, having studied several of these maps in chronological succession, can follow the movement and intensification of weather systems and forecast their positions. This forecasting technique requires the regular and frequent use of large networks of data. See also Weather map.
Planetary-scale phenomena are persistent, quasistationary perturbations of the global circulation of the air with horizontal dimensions comparable to the radius of the Earth. These dominant features of the general circulation appear to be correlated with the major orographic features of the globe and with the latent and sensible heat sources provided by the oceans. They tend to control the paths followed by the synoptic-scale storms, and to draw upon the synoptic transients for an additional source of heat and momentum. See also Atmosphere; Meteorological instrumentation; Weather observations.
Numerical weather prediction is the prediction of weather phenomena by the numerical solution of the equations governing the motion and changes of condition of the atmosphere. Numerical weather prediction techniques, in addition to being applied to short-range weather prediction, are used in such research studies as air-pollutant transport and the effects of greenhouse gases on global climate change. See also Air pollution; Greenhouse effect; Jet stream; Upper-atmosphere dynamics.
The first operational numerical weather prediction model consisted of only one layer, and therefore it could model only the temporal variation of the mean vertical structure of the atmosphere. Computers now permit the development of multilevel (usually about 10–20) models that could resolve the vertical variation of the wind, temperature, and moisture. These multilevel models predict the fundamental meteorological variables for large scales of motion. Global models with horizontal resolutions as fine as 125 mi (200 km) are being used by weather services in several countries. Global numerical weather prediction models require the most powerful computers to complete a 10-day forecast in a reasonable amount of time.
Research models similar to global models could be applied for climate studies by running for much longer time periods. The extension of numerical predictions to long time intervals (many years) requires a more accurate numerical representation of the energy transfer and turbulent dissipative processes within the atmosphere and at the air-earth boundary, as well as greatly augmented computing-machine speeds and capacities.
Long-term simulations of climate models have yielded simulations of mean circulations that strongly resemble those of the atmosphere. These simulations have been useful in explaining the principal features of the Earth's climate, even though it is impossible to predict the daily fluctuations of weather for extended periods. Climate models have also been used successfully to explain paleoclimatic variations, and are being applied to predict future changes in the climate induced by changes in the atmospheric composition or characteristics of the Earth's surface due to human activities. See also Climate history; Climate modification; Paleoclimatology.
Surface meteorological observations are routinely collected from a vast continental data network, with the majority of these observations obtained from the middle latitudes of both hemispheres. Commercial ships of opportunity, military vessels, and moored and drifting buoys provide similar in-place measurements from oceanic regions. Information on winds, pressure, temperature, and moisture throughout the troposphere and into the stratosphere is routinely collected from (1) balloon-borne instrumentation packages (radiosonde observations) and commercial and military aircraft which sample the free atmosphere directly; (2) ground-based remote-sensing instrumentation such as wind profilers (vertically pointing Doppler radars), the National Weather Service Doppler radar network, and lidars; and (3) special sensors deployed on board polar orbiting or geostationary satellites. The remotely sensed observations obtained from meteorological satellites have been especially helpful in providing crucial measurements of areally and vertically averaged temperature, moisture, and winds in data-sparse (mostly oceanic) regions of the world. Such measurements are necessary to accommodate modern numerical weather prediction practices and to enable forecasters to continuously monitor global storm (such as hurricane) activity. See also Lidar; Meteorological instrumentation; Radar meteorology.
Forecast products and forecast skill are classified as longer term (greater than 2 weeks) and shorter term. These varying skill levels reflect the fact that existing numerical prediction models such as the medium-range forecast have become very good at making large-scale circulation and temperature forecasts, but are less successful in making weather forecasts. An example is the prediction of precipitation amount and type given the occurrence of precipitation and convection. Each of these forecasts is progressively more difficult because of the increasing importance of mesoscale processes to the overall skill of the forecast. See also Precipitation (meteorology).
Nowcasting is a form of very short range weather forecasting. The term nowcasting is sometimes used loosely to refer to any area-specific forecast for the period up to 12 h ahead that is based on very detailed observational data. However, nowcasting should probably be defined more restrictively as the detailed description of the current weather along with forecasts obtained by extrapolation up to about 2 h ahead. Useful extrapolation forecasts can be obtained for longer periods in many situations, but in some weather situations the accuracy of extrapolation forecasts diminishes quickly with time as a result of the development or decay of the weather systems. See also Weather.
Forecasts of time averages of atmospheric variables, for example, sea surface temperature, where the lead time for the prediction is more than 2 weeks, are termed long-range or extended-range climate predictions. Extended-range predictions of monthly and seasonal average temperature and precipitation are known as climate outlooks. The accuracy of long-range outlooks has always been modest because the predictions must encompass a large number of possible outcomes, while the observed single event against which the outlook is verified includes the noise created by the specific synoptic disturbances that actually occur and that are unpredictable on monthly and seasonal time scales. According to some estimates of potential predictability, the noise is generally larger than the signal in middle latitudes.
