whiskey

1. An alcoholic liquor distilled from grain, such as corn, rye, or barley, and containing approximately 40 to 50 percent ethyl alcohol by volume.
2. A drink of such liquor.

[Shortening and alteration of USQUEBAUGH.]

WORD HISTORY   Many connoisseurs of fine whiskey wouldn't dream of contaminating their libations with water, but they really can't avoid it. Not only is water used in distilling whiskey, but the words whiskey and water share a common Indo-European root, *wed-, "water, wet." This root could appear in several guises, as *wed-, *wod-, or *ud-. Water is a native English word that goes back by way of prehistoric Common Germanic *watar to the Indo-European suffixed form *wod-ōr, with an o. Whiskey is a shortened form of usquebaugh, which English borrowed from Irish Gaelic uisce beatha and Scottish Gaelic uisge beatha. This compound descends from Old Irish uisce, "water," and bethad, "of life," and meaning literally "water of life." (It thus meant the same thing as the name of another drink, aquavit, which comes from Latin aqua vītae, "water of life.") Uisce comes from the Indo-European suffixed form *ud-skio-. Finally, the name of another alcoholic drink, vodka, comes into English from Russian, where it means literally "little water," as it is a diminutive of voda, "water"-a euphemism if ever there was one. Voda comes from the same Indo-European form as English water, but is differently suffixed: *wod-ā. Whiskey, water, and vodka-etymology can mix a potent cocktail.

For more information on whiskey, visit Britannica.com.

Background

Whiskey (usually spelled whisky in Canada and Scotland) is a spirit produced from fermented grain and aged in wood. A spirit is any alcoholic beverage in which the alcohol content has been increased by distillation. Other spirits include brandy (distilled from wine), rum (distilled from sugarcane juice or molasses), vodka (distilled from grain but not aged), and gin (also distilled from grain and unaged but flavored with juniper berries and other ingredients.)

Undistilled alcoholic beverages such as mead, wine, and beer have been produced since at least 7000 B.C. The process of distillation (heating an alcoholic beverage in order to boil off, collect, and concentrate the alcohol) was first used in China no later than 800 B.C. to produce rice spirits. About the same time in other parts of Asia, distillation was used to produce arrack, a beverage similar to rum, made from rice and sugarcane juice or palm juice. The ancient Arabs, Greeks, and Romans all distilled wine to produce beverages similar to modern brandy. The practice of distillation spread to westetn Europe with the Arabs in the eighth century, particularly in Spain and France.

No one knows where or when the first grain spirits were produced, but they certainly existed in Europe no later than 500 years ago. Some claim that whiskey was invented in Ireland as long as 1,000 years ago and carried to Scotland by monks. In any case, the first written records of Scottish whiskey-making date as far back as 1494. (The word whiskey comes from the Irish Gaelic uisge beatha or the Scottish Gaelic uisge baugh, both meaning "water of life.")

Spirits were carried to the New World with the earliest European settlers. Rum was distilled in New England in the early 17th century, and distillation also took place in New York as early as 1640. During the early 18th century whiskeymaking became an important industry in the western part of the American colonies, particularly in western Pennsylvania. Farmers found it difficult to store their perishable grains and to transport them to distant eastern cities. It was much simpler to use them to make whiskey, which could be stored for years and more easily transported.

Whiskey played an important part in the early history of the United States, especially during the so-called Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. Farmers in western Pennsylvania refused to pay an unpopular tax on whiskey and attacked federal officers who tried to collect it. After the home of the local tax inspector was burned by a group of 500 armed rebels, President George Washington sent in 13,000 troops to stop the uprising. The rebellion ended without bloodshed, and the power of the federal government was firmly established. Many whiskeymakers moved farther west, into what was then Indian territory, to escape federal authority. They settled in southern Indiana and Kentucky, areas that are still famous for whiskey.

American whiskeymaking reached a peak in 1911, when about 400 million liters were produced, a figure not exceeded until after Prohibition. On November 16, 1920, the Volstead Act became the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, and no American whiskey was legally made until the amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933. Production reached another peak in 1951, when about 800 million liters were made. Today about 400 million liters are produced each year.

The earliest devices for distillation consisted of a closed, heated container, a long tube (known as a condenser) through which the alcohol vapor could cool and turn back into a liquid, and a receptacle to catch the alcohol. These were later refined into pot stills, in which alcohol vapor from a heated copper pot was condensed in a helical, water-cooled copper tube called a worm. Pot stills are still often used to make whiskey in Scotland and Ireland and brandy in France. In Scotland in 1826 Robert Stein invented continuous distillation, in which alcohol could be distilled continually rather than batch by batch. This process was improved by the Irishman Aeneas Coffey in 1831 and is still used to make most mass-produced whiskey today.

Whiskey is popular around the world and is made almost everywhere. The United States makes and consumes more whiskey than any other nation, but the most celebrated whiskey is still Scotch whiskey, often just called Scotch.

Raw Materials

Whiskey is made from water, yeast, and grain. The water used is often considered the most important factor in making good whiskey. It should be clean, clear, and free from bad-tasting impurities such as iron. Water that contains carbonates, found in areas that are rich in limestone, is often used in the United States, particularly in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Kentucky. Scottish water is famous for being suited to making fine whiskey, for reasons that are still somewhat mysterious.

Every whiskeymaker keeps a supply of yeast available, grown on barley malt and kept free from bacterial contamination. Some whiskeymakers use several kinds of yeast to control the fermentation process precisely.

The type of grain used varies with the kind of whiskey being made, but all whiskeys contain at least a small amount of malted barley, which is needed to start the fermentation process. Scotch malt whiskey contains only barley. Other whiskeys contain barley in combination with corn, wheat, oats, and/or rye. Corn whiskey must contain at least 80% corn, while Bourbon whiskey and Tennessee whiskey must contain at least 51% corn. Rye whiskey must contain at least 51% rye, and wheat whiskey must contain at least 51% wheat.

Straight whiskeys contain no other ingredients, but blended whiskeys may contain a small amount of additives such as caramel color and sherry.

The Manufacturing
Process

Preparing the grain

• Truckloads of grain are shipped directly from farms to the whiskey manufacturer to be stored in silos until needed. The grain is inspected and cleaned to remove all dust and other foreign particles.
• All grains except barley are first ground into meal in a gristmill. The meal is then mixed with water and cooked to break down the cellulose walls that contain starch granules. This can be done in a closed pressure cooker at temperatures of up to 311°F (155°C) or more slowly in an open cooker at 212°F (100°C).
• Instead of being cooked, barley is malted. The first step in malting barley consists of soaking it in water until it is thoroughly saturated. It is then spread out and sprinkled with water for about three weeks, at which time it begins to sprout.

  During this germination the enzyme amylase is produced, which converts the starch in the barley into sugars. The sprouting is halted by drying the barley and heating it with hot air from a kiln. For Scotch whiskey, the fuel used in the kiln includes peat, a soft, carbon-rich substance formed when plant matter decomposes in water. The peat gives Scotch whiskey a characteristic smoky taste. The malted barley is then ground like other grains.

Mashing

• Mashing consists of mixing cooked grain with malted barley and warm water. The amylase in the malted barley converts the starch in the other grains into sugars. After several hours the mixture is converted into a turbid, sugar-rich liquid known as mash. (In making Scotch malt whiskey the mixture consists only of malted barley and water. After mashing the mixture is filtered to produce a sugar-rich liquid known as wort.)

Fermenting

• The mash or wort is transferred to a fermentation vessel, usually closed in Scotland and open in the United States. These vessels may be made of wood or stainless steel. Yeast is added to begin fermentation, in which the single-celled yeast organisms convert the sugars in the mash or wort to alcohol. The yeast may be added in the form of new, never-used yeast cells (the sweet mash process) or in the form of a portion of a previous batch of fermentation (the sour mash process.) The sour mash method is more often used because it is effective at room temperature and its low pH (high acidity) promotes yeast growth and inhibits the growth of bacteria. The sweet mash method is more difficult to control, and it must be used at temperatures above 80°F (27°C) to speed up the fermentation and to avoid bacterial contamination. After three or four days, the end product of fermentation is a liquid containing about 10% alcohol known as distiller's beer in the United States or wash in Scotland.

Distilling

• Scottish whiskeymakers often distill their wash in traditional copper pot stills. The wash is heated so that most of the alcohol (which boils at 172°F [78°C]) is transformed into vapor but most of the water (which boils at 212°F [100°C]) is not. This vapor is transferred back into liquid alcohol in a water-cooled condenser and collected. Most modern distilleries use a continuous still. This consists of a tall cylindrical column filled with a series of perforated plates. Steam enters the still from the bottom, and distiller's beer enters from the top. The beer is distilled as it slowly drips through the plates, and the alcohol is condensed back into a liquid. With either method, the product of the initial distillation—known as low wine—is distilled a second time to produce a product known as high wine or new whiskey, which contains about 70% alcohol.
• The temperature of distillation and other factors determine the proportions of water, alcohol, and other substances (called congeners) in the final product. If it contains more than 95% alcohol it will have no flavor because it has no congeners. This product is known as grain neutral spirit and is often used to add alcohol without adding taste during blending. If the final product has too many congeners of the wrong kind it will taste bad. Distillers remove bad-tasting congeners (usually aldehydes, acids, esters, and higher alcohols) in various ways. Some congeners boil at a lower temperature than alcohol and can be boiled off. Some are lighter than alcohol and will float on top, where they can be poured off.
• Tennessee whiskey is unique in that the high wine is filtered through charcoal before it is aged. The charcoal is produced by burnning wood from sugar maples. This filtration removes unwanted congeners and results in a particularly smooth whiskey. Premium Tennessee whiskey may be filtered through charcoal again after it is aged to produce an even smoother product.

Aging

• Water is added to the high wine to reduce its alcohol content to about 50% or 60% for American whiskeys and about 65% or higher for Scotch whiskeys. Scotch whiskeys are aged in cool, wet conditions, so they absorb water and become less alcoholic. American whiskeys are aged in warmer, drier conditions so they lose water and become more alcoholic. Whiskey is aged in wooden barrels, usually made from charred white oak. White oak is used because it is one of the few woods that can hold a liquid without leaking but which also allows the water in the whiskey to move back and forth within the pores of the wood, which helps to add flavor. In the United States these barrels are usually new and are only used once. In most other countries it is common to reuse old barrels. New barrels add more flavor than used barrels, resulting in differences in the taste of American and foreign whiskeys.

  The aging process is a complex one, still not fully understood, but at least three factors are involved. First, the original mixture of water, alcohol, and congeners react with each other over time. Second, these ingredients react with oxygen in the outside air in oxidation reactions. Third, the water absorbs substances from the wood as it moves within it. (Charring the wood makes these substances more soluble in water.) All these factors change the flavor of the whiskey. Whiskey generally takes at least three or four years to mature, and many whiskeys are aged for ten or fifteen years.

Blending

• Straight whiskeys and single malt Scotch whiskeys are not blended; that is, they are produced from single batches and are ready to be bottled straight from the barrel. All other whiskeys are blended. Different batches of whiskey are mixed together to produce a better flavor. Often neutral grain spirit is added to lighten the flavor, caramel is added to standardize the color, and a small amount of sherry or port wine is added to help the flavors blend. Blended Scotch whiskey usually consists of several batches of strongly flavored malt whiskeys mixed with less strongly flavored grain whiskeys. A few blends contain only malt whiskeys. Blending is often considered the most difficult and critical process in producing premium Scotch whiskeys. A premium blended Scotch whiskey may contain more than 60 individual malt whiskeys which must be blended in the proper proportions.

Bottling

• Glass is always used to store mature whiskey because it does not react with it to change the flavor. Modern distilleries use automated machinery to produce as many as 400 bottles of whiskey per minute. The glass bottles move down a conveyor belt as they are cleaned, filled, capped, sealed, labeled, and placed in cardboard boxes. The whiskey is ready to be shipped to liquor stores, bars, and restaurants.

Quality Control

Although the making of good whiskey is still more of an art than an exact science, there are certain basic precautions that all whiskeymakers take to ensure quality. The water used must be taken from an appropriate natural source. It must be filtered so that it is free from organic matter. The grain used must be very clean. It is also passed through screens to eliminate grains that are too small. The yeast is carefully grown to avoid contamination by other microorganisms. The temperature of distillation is monitored with thermometers in the boiling liquid, which are visible through glass windows in the still. During aging, samples of whiskey are evaluated by experienced tasters to determine if it is mature. The blending process is supervised by master blenders to produce a final product with the proper taste.

Byproducts/Waste

Very little of the ingredients used in whiskeymaking are wasted.

The portion of the fermented mash which remains after the distillation can be used for animal feed. The charred white oak barrels used only once in the United States are often sold overseas to age foreign whiskeys. The charcoal used to filter Tennessee whiskey can be pressed into charcoal briquets for barbecues.

Where To Learn More

Books

Jackson, Michael. The World Guide to Whisky. Darling Kindersley, 1987.

Grossman, Harold J. and Harriet Lembeck. Grossman's Guide to Wines, Beers, and Spirits. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977.

Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lachine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits. Knopf, 1976.

Periodicals

Asher, Gerald. "Single Malt Scotch Whiskey." Gourmet, December 1989, pp. 94-99.

DeMarco, Dan and Frank Bechard. "New Weigh Scales Smooth Distillery's Production, Improve Inventory Control." Food Engineering, October 1986, pp. 95-96.

Johnson, Julie. "Mysteries of the Malt." New Scientist, January 26, 1991, pp. 56-59.

Letwin, William. "More Than a Drink." National Review, April 18, 1994, p. 14+.

[Article by: Rose Secrest]

[HWIHSK-ee; WIHSK-ee] An alcoholic distillate obtained from a fermented mash of grains such as barley, rye or corn. The name comes from the Celtic (Gaelic) uisqebaugh (pronounced oos-kee-BAW or whis-kee-BAW), which means "water of life." Many factors influence a whiskey's quality and flavor including the type of grain and yeast used, the method of distillation, how it's aged and the water source. Straight whiskey must be made from at least 51 percent of a grain, must not exceed 160 proof (80 percent alcohol), must be aged in oak barrels for 2 years and may only be diluted with water to no less than 80 proof. bourbon, tennessee whiskey and rye whiskey are all straight whiskeys. Blended whiskey is a combination of two or more 100-proof straight whiskeys blended with neutral spirits, grain spirits or light whiskeys. Light whiskey has been distilled to a higher-than-normal alcohol level (typically more than 160 proof) then diluted with water to a greater extent than usual. It gets its distinctive character from being stored in charred oak containers. Such whiskies are generally used for blending. Single-malt whiskey is made only from malted barley and from a single distillery. Such whiskeys are typically richer in flavor and usually more expensive than blended whiskey. There are myriad single-malt scotch whiskeys as well as some single-malt irish whiskeys available. The countries with the highest whiskey production are Canada, Ireland, Great Britain (Scotland) and the United States. Traditionally, whiskies made in Scotland and Canada are spelled whisky, sans the "e." See also canadian whisky; corn whiskey; hooch.

Many early colonial settlers were from Ireland and Scotland and were acquainted with the art of distilling whiskey, principally from malt. Many of the Irish and Scottish immigrants settled in western Pennsylvania, which in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries became a center of rye-whiskey making. In Kentucky, settlers discovered that whiskey could be produced from corn, which eventually became America's leading spirit. In 1792 there were 2,579 small distilleries throughout the United States. The drink emerged as a patriotic alternative to rum, which relied on imported molasses.

Whiskey became such a vital part of the ecomony that in 1794 western settlers organized in protest against a federal excise tax in the Whiskey Rebellion. Enormous distilling plants flourished in Kentucky, manufacturing sour mash, sweet mash, bourbon whiskey, and a small percentage of rye. Prohibition changed the business dramatically, destroying many long-established companies. In 1935 Kentucky produced 197 million gallons of whiskey. Producing a relatively low 104 million gallons in 1955, whiskey distillers in the United States put out 160 million gallons in 1970. By 1972 production had fallen to 126 million gallons.

Bibliography

Crowgey, Henry G. Kentucky Bourbon: The Early Years of Whiskey Making. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1971.

Rorabaugh, W. J. The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.

The spelling "whiskey" is common for Irish whiskeys and the vast majority of U.S. whiskeys. The spelling "whisky" is sometimes used for Scotch, Canadian, and other whiskeys and occasionally for some U.S. whiskeys. The word "whisky"/"whiskey" is derived from the Irish and Scottish Gaelic usquebaugh or uisge beatha, meaning 'water of life' (compare the French eau-de-vie). Whiskey is of course a high-alcohol beverage ("spirit") produced by the distillation of grain-based lower-alcohol fermentations.

Origins and Social History

The art of distillation of various fermented brews, most often wine-based, dates back to ancient civilizations, including Chinese, Indian, and Egyptian. Much of the European Middle Ages saw distilled alcohol used medicinally, but undoubtedly a proportion of early distillations was consumed as a warming, mood-uplifting drink. It is likely that whiskey-type distillation originated in Ireland, possibly as early as 500 to 800 B.C.E. and mainly within monastic communities. Irish Gaels emigrated to western Scotland and beyond, and it is likely they took their craft with them. Distilling the brews of grains, usually from their own land, was largely a home-based craft among Highland clans for personal consumption. What is referred to as Scotch whisky was first specifically listed in print around 1500.

Home distilling for personal consumption remained legal until 1784, but long before then whisky was sold or traded illicitly. However, greater problems developed with the introduction of taxes on spirits. Following the "union of the Crowns" in 1603 (King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne as King James I of England and Scotland), whisky distilled in Scotland became more popular in England. However, England and Scotland maintained separate Parliaments with individual legal systems and laws. The "republican" English government (the Commonwealth years of Oliver Cromwell) imposed the first tax on spirits in 1643. Under duress, the Scottish Parliament followed suit the following year and levied an additional high duty in 1693. The British monarch Charles II also attempted to tax Irish whiskey in 1661 but with little success.

The Act of Union (the union of the Scottish and English Parliaments to become the British government in London) in 1707 brought more serious problems for Scottish (and, to a lesser extent Irish) whisky in the eighteenth century. More duties were levied, but the vast majority of distillers avoided paying taxes. The numerous excisemen found collection difficult as most distilling was still small scale, often in remote Highland glens, and illegal stills were easy to dismantle and relocate. Smuggling, often undertaken during darkness, was widespread. Even when illicit distillers were brought to court, magistrates were often sympathetic and lenient, imposing low fines.

Robert Burns, Scotland's national bard worked as an exciseman for some eight years before his death in 1796. He was a devotee of whisky and its warm, merry, and creative effects. He wrote several poems and songs in praise of whisky, such as "The Deil's Awa' Wi' th' Exciseman" (The devil's away with the exciseman). A few choice lines give the flavor (English equivalents of Scots words are in parentheses).

 We'll mak [make] our maut [malt], and we'll brew our drink,
 We'll laugh, sing, and rejoice, man, . . .
 . . . There's threesome reels, there's foursome reels,
 There's hornpipes and strathspeys [dances] man,
 But the ae [one] best dance e'er [ever] cam [came] to the land
 Was the deil's awa' wi' th' Exciseman. 

By 1823 new legislation completely altered the development of Scotch whisky distilling. The change from heavy taxation, calculated by volume, to a reasonable license fee encouraged larger distilleries in more permanent locations.

A somewhat similar history applies to American whiskey. Following the English Pilgrims, further immigrants included Scots and Irish, who spread westward to farm. As their yields of grains increased, many settlers made their own whiskey from barley, rye, and upon further expansion west, corn. British taxes were introduced as early as 1684, with little success in collection. In 1791 Pennsylvania passed a law requiring registration of all distilling equipment. A few years later an outright rebellion erupted in Pennsylvania, including destruction of property and capture of excisemen, that was only quelled by the militia. As in Scotland, larger commercial distilleries, including those in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Kentucky, began to take over during the nineteenth century.

Raw Materials and Basic Processes

Scotch whisky can be divided into two basic types, malt whisky and blended whisky. The former, original type uses barley exclusively, whereas blended whisky combines malt whisky with spirits from other cereals.

Malt whisky. The harvested and dried barley is first "malted," that is, the grain is allowed to germinate to a certain point. This is achieved by soaking in water for a controlled period (two to three days), draining the water, and airing and turning the germinating grains at a controlled temperature (around 60°F). The last process usually involves large revolving drums. The grains are soft, and germination is stopped. During germination, enzymes convert insoluble starch to soluble. This "green malt" is dried, which in most cases includes various periods of peat-fire smoke (peat originates from the decomposition of vegetable matter). The dried malt is coarsely ground, and hot water is added. This process of "mashing" converts soluble starch to the sugar maltose. The liquid is drawn off, cooled to around 70°F, and run into fermentation vessels along with yeast, mainly from brewers but often including cultures of selected strains. Fermentation is vigorous and rapid, usually thirty-six to forty-eight hours, with the yeast converting sugars to alcohol (7 to 8 percent ).

This liquid is then distilled in pear-shaped copper ("pot") stills, first in large stills to produce crude "low wines" with around 30 percent alcohol. This is redistilled in smaller stills with precise care to minimize impurities (such as alcohols higher than ethanol), producing pure but immature spirits of around 70 percent alcohol. A few Scotch and most Irish spirits are distilled a third time, finishing as lighter whiskeys.

These "rough" spirits require maturation and are transferred to oak barrels, often with water added to reduce the alcohol content to around 63 percent. Various types of oak barrels, such as bourbon, sherry, and Madiera casks, contribute color and flavor from the wood. Although by law the minimum storage is three years, five years is more common (mainly for blending), and most superior malts are matured ten to fifteen years or longer.

Blended whisky. This type added enormously to the amount of Scotch produced in the nineteenth century with the design of a much larger still. The blends are a mixture of a wide variety of malt whiskies with "grain whisky," which is distilled from a range of grains, including corn, rye, wheat, and barley, mainly unmalted. The large stills used are modified versions of the Coffey stills (patented in 1830), which distill continuously and produce a purer 90 percent alcohol. Blending the many types of malt whiskies is a skilled occupation, accomplished by an experienced nose. Generally lighter-to fuller-flavored blends are related to the increasing proportion of malt whiskies used.

Twentieth-Century Developments

Apart from new varieties of barley and other cereals, centralized and mechanical maltings, and novel designs of Coffey stills, whiskey production is essentially traditional. In the twentieth century prohibition in the United States provided opportunities for increased production of Scotch, Irish, and Canadian whiskeys. Whiskey production has spread to many countries, especially Japan, which already had a traditional base and which offers brands that are prized among the world's elite. Larger companies and mergers have also resulted in conglomerates. Surprisingly, given the long tradition, production and marketing of single malt Scotch whiskies increased strongly only since the 1960s. Quite a number of malt whisky distilleries in Scotland are owned by U.S., Canadian, and Japanese companies, for example, Jim Beam, Seagrams, and Suntory respectively.

Bibliography

Arthur, Helen. Whisky: Uisge Beatha, the Water of Life. London: Apple Press, 2000.

Brown, Gordon. Classic Spirits of the World: A Comprehensive Guide. London: Prion Books, 1995.

Daiches, David, and Alan Daiches. Scotch Whisky: Its Past and Present. 3rd ed. London: Deutsch, 1978.

Jackson, Michael. Scotland and its Whiskies. London: Duncan Baird, 2001.

Murray, James. Classic Bourbon, Tennessee and Rye Whiskey. London: Prion Books, 1998.

Wisniewski, Ian. Classic Malt Whisky. London: Prion Books, 2001.

—John Johnston

For other uses, see Whisky (disambiguation).

A glass of whisky

Whisky or whiskey is a type of alcoholic beverage distilled from fermented grain mash. Different grains are used for different varieties, including barley, malted barley, rye, malted rye, wheat, and maize (corn). Most whiskies are aged in wooden casks (generally oak), the exception being some corn whiskeys.

Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many competing denominations of origin and many classes and types. The unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, and the practice of distilling the spirit down to a maximum of 80% alcohol for corn and 90% alcohol for other grains, prior to adding water, so as to retain some of the flavor of the grain used to make the spirit and prevent it from being classified as grain neutral spirits or vodka.^[1] Whisky gains as much as 60% of its flavor from the type of cask used in its aging process.^{[citation needed]} Therefore further classification takes place based upon the type of wood used and the amount of charring or toasting done to the wood.^[2] Bourbon whiskey for example is legally required to be aged in charred new oak barrels, whereas quality Scotch whiskies often used the partially spent barrels from Bourbon production to induce a slower maturation time, adding additional subtle nuance.^[3]

With few exceptions, the spelling is Scottish, Canadian, and Japanese whisky (plural: whiskies), but Irish and American whiskey (whiskeys).^[4]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Types 3.1 American whiskeys 3.2 Canadian whiskies 3.3 Finnish whiskies 3.4 German whiskies 3.5 Indian whiskies 3.6 Irish whiskeys 3.7 Japanese whiskies 3.8 Scotch whiskies 3.9 Welsh whiskies 3.10 Other whiskies 4 Names and spellings 5 Chemistry 5.1 Flavours from distillation 5.2 Flavours from oak 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

Etymology

Whisky is a shortened form of usquebaugh, which English borrowed from Irish Gaelic uisce beatha and Scottish Gaelic uisge beatha. This compound descends from Old Irish uisce, "water", and bethad, "of life" and meaning literally "water of life". It meant the same thing as the Latin aqua vītae which had been applied to distilled drinks since early 14th century. Other early spellings include usquebea (1706) and iskie bae (1583). In the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise in 1405, the first written record of whisky appears describing the death of a chieftain at Christmas from "taking a surfeit of aqua vitae". In Scotland, the first evidence of whisky production comes from an entry in the Exchequer Rolls for 1494 where malt is sent "To Friar John Cor, by order of the king, to make aquavitae".^[5]

History

The art of distillation originated in the East, being brought into Europe by the Moors in Spain, with perfumes and aromatics being distilled long before potable spirits. It is believed that the art of distillation was brought from the Mediterranean regions to Ireland by Irish missionaries between the 6th century and 7th century, and that the necessary skills were brought to Scotland by missionary monks who settled in the west of Scotland. ^[6][7]

Types

Copper Pot stills at Auchentoshan Distillery in Scotland

Whisky or whisky-like products are produced in most grain-growing areas. They differ in base product, alcoholic content, and quality.

Malted barley is an ingredient of some whiskies.

• Malt is whisky made entirely from malted barley and distilled in an onion-shaped pot still.
• Grain is made from malted and unmalted barley along with other grains, usually in a continuous "patent" or "Coffey" still. Until recently it was only used in blends, but there are now some single grain scotches being marketed.

Malts and grains are combined in various ways

• Vatted malt is blended from malt whiskies from different distilleries. If a whisky is labelled "pure malt" or just "malt" it is almost certain to be a vatted whisky. This is also sometimes labelled as "blended malt" whisky.
• Single malt whisky is malt whisky from a single distillery. However, unless the whisky is described as "single-cask" it will contain whisky from many casks, and different years, so the blender can achieve a taste recognisable as typical of the distillery. In most cases, the name of a single malt will be that of the distillery (The Glenlivet, Bushmills, Yoichi), with an age statement and perhaps some indication of some special treatments such as maturation in a port wine cask.
• Pure pot still whiskey refers to a whiskey distilled in a pot-still (like single malt) from a mash of mixed malted and unmalted barley. It is exclusive to Ireland.
• Blended whiskies are made from a mixture of malt and grain whiskies. A whisky simply described as Scotch Whisky or Irish Whiskey is most likely to be a blend in this sense. A blend is usually from many distilleries so that the blender can produce a flavour consistent with the brand, and the brand name (e.g., Chivas Regal, Canadian Club) will usually not therefore contain the name of a distillery. Jameson Irish Whiskey is an exception and comes from only one distillery. However, "blend" can (less frequently) have other meanings. A mixture of malts (with no grain) from different distilleries (more usually called a vatted malt) may sometimes be referred to as a "blended malt", and a mixture of grain whiskies with no malts will sometimes carry the designation "blended grain".
• Cask strength whiskies are rare and usually only the very best whiskies are bottled in this way. They are usually bottled from the cask undiluted. Rather than diluting, the distiller is inviting the drinker to dilute to the level of potency most palatable (often no dilution is necessary, such is the quality of single cask whiskies). Single cask whiskies are usually bottled by specialist independent bottlers, such as Duncan Taylor, Master of Malt, Gordon & MacPhail and Cadenhead amongst others.

Whiskies do not mature in the bottle, only in the cask, so the "age" of a whisky is the time between distillation and bottling. This reflects how much the cask has interacted with the whisky, changing its chemical makeup and taste. Whiskies which have been in bottle for many years may have a rarity value, but are not "older" and will not necessarily be "better" than a more recently made whisky matured in wood for a similar time. Most whiskies are sold at or near an alcoholic strength of 40% abv.

American whiskeys

Main article: American whiskey

American whiskey is distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain. It must have the taste, aroma, and other characteristics commonly attributed to whiskey.

The most common types listed in the federal regulations^[8] are:

• Bourbon whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% corn (maize).
• Rye whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% rye.
• Corn whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 80% corn (maize).
• Straight whiskey, (without naming a grain) is a whiskey which has been aged in charred new oak containers for 2 years or more and distilled at not more than 80 percent alcohol by volume but is derived from less than 51% of any one grain.

The "named types" of American whiskey must be distilled to not more than 80 percent alcohol by volume. "Named types" must then be aged in charred new oak containers, excepting corn whiskey. Corn whiskey does not have to be aged but, if it is aged, it must be in new un-charred oak barrels or used barrels. The aging for corn whiskey usually is brief, e.g., six months.

If the aging for a "named type" reaches 2 years or beyond, the whiskey is then additionally designated "straight" e.g., "straight rye whiskey". "Straight whiskey" (without naming a grain) is a whiskey which has been aged in charred new oak containers for 2 years or more and distilled at not more than 80 percent alcohol by volume but is derived from less than 51% of any one grain.

American blended whiskeys combine straight whiskey with un-aged whiskey, grain neutral spirits, flavorings and colorings.

Important in the marketplace is Tennessee whiskey, of which Jack Daniel's is the leading example. During distillation, it is identical to bourbon whiskey in almost every important respect including the sour mash process, which is generally unique to North America, but Tennessee whiskey is charcoal filtered prior to barrel aging. The most recognizable differences are that Tennessee whiskey is filtered through sugar maple charcoal, giving it a unique flavor and aroma. The other major difference is the reuse of barrels which is not allowed in bourbon whiskey production. Though not defined by regulations, the Government of the United States of America officially recognized Tennessee whiskey as a separate style in 1941.

Canadian whiskies

Various Canadian whiskies

Main article: Canadian whisky

Canadian whiskies are usually lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. Another common characteristic of many Canadian whiskies is their use of rye that has been malted, which provides a fuller flavour and smoothness. By Canadian law,^[9] Canadian whiskies must be produced in Canada, be distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain, "be aged in small wood for not less than 3 years", and "possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky". The terms "Canadian Whisky", "Canadian Rye Whisky" and "Rye Whisky" are legally indistinguishable in Canada and do not denote any particular proportion of rye or other grain used in production.

Finnish whiskies

Main article: Finnish whisky

In the last few years Finnish whisky culture has developed strongly and it is still in progress of evolving. Finnish whisky culture now lives a very strong growth through the rising standard of living and general culinary trend. The sales figures and the quantity of devotees of whisky have risen very powerfully. Currently, there are two working distilleries in Finland and a third one is under construction. Whisky retail sales in Finland are controlled solely by the state alcohol monopoly Alko and advertisement of strong alcoholic beverages is banned. However, the monopoly status of Alko and the advertising prohibition do not stop people from taking interest in whiskies, even though they can make it more difficult.^[10]

German whiskies

Main article: German whisky

German whisky is made from grains traditionally associated with the production of whisky. The distillation of German-made whisky is a relatively recent phenomenon having only started in the last 30 years. The styles produced resemble those made in Ireland, Scotland and the United States: single malts, blends, and bourbon styles. There is no standard spelling of German whiskies with distilleries using both "whisky" and "whiskey" and one even using "whessky", a play on the word whisky and Hesse, the state in which it is produced. There are currently ten distilleries in Germany producing whisky.^[11]

Indian whiskies

Main article: Indian whisky

Indian whisky is an alcoholic beverage that is labelled as "whisky" in India. Much Indian whisky is distilled from fermented molasses, and as such would be considered a sort of rum outside of the Indian subcontinent.^[12] 90% of the "whisky" consumed in India is molasses based, although India has begun to distill whisky from malt and other grains.^[13]

Kasauli Distillery is set in the Himalaya mountains and opened in the late 1820s. The main whisky brand is a single malt named "Solan No. 1". This was named after the town nearby called Solan. It was the best selling Indian whisky till recently, but has declined since the early 1980s' because of the stiff competition from the larger distilleries. Other whiskies this distillery produces are Diplomat Deluxe, Colonel's Special, Black Knight and Summer Hall.^[14]

Irish whiskeys

Various Irish whiskeys

Main article: Irish whiskey

Most Irish whiskeys are distilled three times,^[15] although there are exceptions. Though traditionally distilled using the pot still method, in modern times a column still is used to produce the grain whiskey used in blends. By law, Irish whiskey must be produced in Ireland and aged in wooden casks for a period of no less than three years, although in practice it is usually three or four times that period.^[16] Unpeated malt is almost always used, the main exception being Connemara Peated Malt whiskey.

There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland: single malt, single grain, blended whiskey and uniquely to Ireland, pure pot still whiskey. The designation "pure pot still" as used in Ireland generally refers to whiskey made of 100% barley, mixed malted and unmalted, and distilled in a pot still made of copper. The "green" unmalted barley gives the traditional pure pot still whiskey a spicy, uniquely Irish quality. Like single malt, pure pot still is sold as such or blended with grain whiskey. Usually no real distinction is made between whether a blended whiskey was made from single malt or pure pot still.

Japanese whiskies

Main article: Japanese whisky

The model for Japanese whiskies is the single malt Scotch, although there are also examples of Japanese blended whiskies. The base is a mash of malted barley, dried in kilns fired with a little peat (although considerably less than is the case in Scotland), and distilled using the pot still method. For some time Japanese whisky suffered from the commonly held belief that whisky made in the Scotch style, but not produced in Scotland, was inferior, and until fairly recently, the market for Japanese whiskies was almost entirely domestic. In recent years, Japanese whiskies have won prestigious international awards and now enjoys a deserved reputation for a quality product.^[17][18]

Scotch whiskies

Various Scotch whiskies

Main article: Scotch whisky

Scotch whiskies are generally distilled twice, though some are distilled a third time.^[19] International laws require anything bearing the label "Scotch" to be distilled in Scotland and matured for a minimum of three years and one day in oak casks, among other, more specific criteria.^[20] If Scotch whisky is from more than one cask, and if it includes an age statement on the bottle, it must reflect the age of the youngest whisky in the blend. Many cask-strength single malts omit the age as they use younger elements in minute amounts for flavouring and mellowing. The basic types of Scotch are malt and grain, which are combined to create blends. Many, though not all, Scotch whiskies use peat smoke to treat their malt, giving Scotch its distinctive smoky flavour. While the market is dominated by blends, the most highly prized of Scotch whiskies are the single malts. Scotch whiskies are divided into five main regions: Highland, Lowland, Islay, Speyside and Campbeltown.

Welsh whiskies

Main article: Welsh whisky

In 2000, Penderyn Distillery started production of the Penderyn single malt Welsh whisky in Wales. The first bottles went on sale on 1 March 2004, Saint David's Day. It is now sold throughout the world.

Penderyn Distillery is situated in Brecon Beacons National Park and first produced whisky in 2000. It is considered the smallest distillery in the world^[21]. Penderyn Distillery obtains its wash from Brains Brewery.

Other whiskies

In Britanny, France, five distilleries (Distillerie des Menhirs^[22], Guillon^[23], Glann ar Mor^[24], Kaerilis^[25] and Warenghem^[26]) produce whisky using techniques similar to those in Scotland.

Two whiskies are produced on the French island of Corsica: Altore and P&M. Altore is distilled in Scotland, but blended and matured on Corsica in muscat casks. P&M (Pietra & Mavella) is a coproduction of the brewery Pietra and the distillery Mavella. The mash is enriched with chestnut flour. P&M is also matured in muscat casks.^[27]

Manx Spirit from the Isle of Man is, like some Virginia whiskeys in the USA, actually distilled elsewhere and re-distilled in the country of its nominal "origin". In England, a new distillery (St. George's Distillery^[28]) became operational in late 2006; the product will come onto the market in due time, based on ageing and marketing considerations.

In Sweden a new distillery (Mackmyra^[29]), started selling its products in 2008.

Recently at least two distilleries in the traditionally brandy-producing Caucasus region announced their plans to enter the Russian domestic market with whiskies. The Stavropol-based Praskoveysky distillery bases its product on Irish technology, while in Kizlyar, Dagestan's "Russian Whisky" announced a Scotch-inspired drink in single malt, blended and wheat varieties.^[30]

In Taiwan, the King Car company built a whisky distillery in the city of Yilan, and has recently begun marketing Kavalan Single Malt Whisky. King Car Whisky Distillery

Names and spellings

The word "whiskey" is believed to have been coined by soldiers of King Henry II who invaded Ireland in the 12th century as they struggled to pronounce the native Irish words uisce beatha [ɪʃkʲə bʲahə], meaning "water of life". Over time, the pronunciation changed from "Whishkeyba" (an approximation of how the Irish term sounds) to "Whisky". The name itself is a Gaelic translation of the Latin phrase aqua vitae, meaning "Water of Life".^[31]

At one time, all whisky was spelled without the "e", as "whisky". In around 1870, the reputation of Scottish whisky was very poor as Scottish distilleries flooded the market with cheaper spirits produced using the Coffey still. The Irish and American distilleries adopted the spelling "whiskey", with the extra "e", to distinguish their higher quality product. Today, the spelling whisky (plural whiskies) is generally used for whiskies distilled in Scotland, Wales, Canada, and Japan, while whiskey is used for the spirits distilled in Ireland and America. Even though a 1968 directive of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms specifies "whisky" as the official U.S. spelling, it allows labeling as "whiskey" in deference to tradition and most U.S. producers still use the historical spelling. Exceptions such as Early Times, Maker's Mark, and George Dickel are usually indicative of a Scottish heritage.^[6]

In the late Victorian era, Irish whiskey was the world's most popular whisk(e)y. Of the Irish whiskeys, Dublin whiskeys were regarded as the grands crus of whiskeys. In order to differentiate Dublin whiskey from other whiskies, the Dublin distilleries adopted the spelling "whiskey". The other Irish distilleries eventually followed suit. The last Irish "whisky" was Paddy, which adopted the "e" in 1966.^[6]

"Scotch" is the internationally recognized term for "Scotch whisky" however it is rarely used in Scotland, where grain whisky is generally referred to as "whisky" and single malt whisky as "malt".^[32]

In many Latin-American countries, whisky (wee-skee) is used as a photographer's cue to smile, supplanting English "cheese". The Uruguayan film Whisky got its name because of this.

Chemistry

Whiskies and other distilled beverages such as cognac and rum are complex beverages containing a vast range of flavouring compounds, of which some 200 to 300 can be easily detected by chemical analysis. The flavouring chemicals include "carbonyl compounds, alcohols, carboxylic acids and their esters, nitrogen- and sulphur-containing compounds, tannins and other polyphenolic compounds, terpenes, and oxygen-containing heterocyclic compounds" and esters of fatty acids.^[33] The nitrogen compounds include pyridines, picolines and pyrazines.^[34]

Flavours from distillation

The flavouring of whisky is partially determined by the presence of congeners and fusel oils. Fusel oils are higher alcohols than ethanol, are mildly toxic, and have a strong, disagreeable smell and taste. An excess of fusel oils in whisky is considered a defect. A variety of methods are employed in the distillation process to remove unwanted fusel oils. Traditionally, American distillers focused on secondary filtration using charcoal, gravel, sand, or linen to subtract undesired distillates. Canadian distillers have traditionally employed column stills which can be controlled to produce an almost pure (and less flavourful) ethanol known as neutral grain spirit or grain neutral spirit (GNS).^[35] Flavour is restored by blending the neutral grain spirits with flavouring whiskies.^[36]

Acetals are rapidly formed in distillates and a great many are found in distilled beverages, the most prominent being acetaldehyde diethyl acetal (1,1-diethoxyethane). Among whiskies the highest levels are associated with malt whisky.^[37] This acetal is a principal flavour compound in sherry, and contributes fruitiness to the aroma.^[38]

The diketone diacetyl (2,3-Butanedione) has a buttery aroma and is present in almost all distilled beverages. Whiskies and cognacs typically contain more than vodkas, but significantly less than rums or brandies.^[39]

Flavours from oak

Whisky lactone (3-methyl-4-octanolide) is found in all types of oak. This lactone has a strong coconut aroma.^[40] Whisky lactone is also known as quercus lactone.^[41]

Commercially charred oaks are rich in phenolic compounds. One study discriminated 40 different phenolic compounds. The coumarin scopoletin is present in whisky, with the highest level reported in Bourbon whiskey.^[42]

See also

• Whisky Olympics
• Whiskey Rebellion
• American Whiskey Trail
• Poitín
• Moonshine (home-distilled alcohol)
• List of cocktails made with whisky
• List of whisky brands
• Bottled in bond

References

1. ^ http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr;sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a;rgn=div5;view=text;node=27%3A1.0.1.1.3;idno=27;cc=ecfr#27:1.0.1.1.3.3
2. ^ http://www.scotlandwhisky.com/about/how
3. ^ http://www.whiskeywise.com/whiskey-barrels.html
4. ^ Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 137, 181, 201. ISBN 9780060542184. 
5. ^ Ross, James. Whisky. Routledge. pp. 158. ISBN 0710066856. 
6. ^ ^{a b c} Magee, Malachy (1980). Irish Whiskey - A 1000 year tradition. O'Brien press. pp. 144. ISBN 0862782287. 
7. ^ Russell, Inge (2003). Whisky: technology, production and marketing. Academic Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780126692020. 
8. ^ "Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations, Pt. 5.22". http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2008/aprqtr/pdf/27cfr5.22.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
9. ^ "Food and Drugs Act, Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870)". http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/F-27/C.R.C.-c.870/236939.html#Section-B.02.020. Retrieved 2007-01-23. 
10. ^ ""WITH A DASH OF WATER" Finnish Whisky Culture and its Future". http://batman.jamk.fi/~voyager/opin/index.php?show=3995. Retrieved 2009-07-22. 
11. ^ MaClean, Charles (2008). Whiskey. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 254-265. ISBN 978-0-7566-3349-3. 
12. ^ Paul Peachey (2006-03-03). "Battle for the world's largest whisky market -- India". South Africa Mail & Guardian. http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=265802&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__business/. Retrieved 2007-06-25. 
13. ^ "Amrut Distilleries". http://www.amrutdistilleries.com/. Retrieved 2007-06-25. 
14. ^ "Planet Whiskies Lists of Indian Whisky Distilleries". http://www.planetwhiskies.com/distilleries/indian.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19. 
15. ^ http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-12549581.html Differences between Scotch and Irish whiskey
16. ^ Government of Ireland. "Irish Whiskey Act, 1980". http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1980_33.html. Retrieved 2007-02-20. 
17. ^ Nikka Yoichi 10 Single Cask scores highest
18. ^ 2008 World Whisky Awards
19. ^ Jackson, Michael (1994). Michael Jackson's Malt Whisky Companion. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 12. ISBN 0-7513-0146-9. 
20. ^ "ASIL Insight: WTO Protections for Food Geographic Indications". http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh43.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-25. 
21. ^ "Planet Whiskies Welsh Distillery Section". http://www.planetwhiskies.com/distilleries/welsh.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19. 
22. ^ (French)Distillerie des Menhirs
23. ^ (French)Guillon
24. ^ (French)Glann ar Mor
25. ^ (French)Kaerilis
26. ^ (French)Warenghem
27. ^ http://www.corsica-isula.com/gastronomy.htm
28. ^ St. George's Distillery
29. ^ Mackmyra
30. ^ "Lenta.ru report (in Russian)". http://lenta.ru/news/2008/04/17/whiskey/. 
31. ^ Lloyd, J & Mitchinson, J: "The Book of General Ignorance". Faber & Faber, 2006.
32. ^ "Scotch: Definition, Synonyms and Much More from Answers.com". www.answers.com. http://www.answers.com/topic/scotch-1. Retrieved 2008-06-21. 
33. ^ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. pp. 548. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 
34. ^ Belitz, Hans-Dieter; Peter Schieberle & Werner Grosch (2004). Food Chemistry. Springer. pp. 936. ISBN 3540408185. http://books.google.com/books?id=_QWbLTSL6HoC. 
35. ^ "Pure Alcohol (Ethanol)" (pdf). http://www.pharmco-prod.com/pages/ep1.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
36. ^ Robert Hess (2007-08-25). "Canadian Whiskey". http://thespiritworld.net/2007/08/25/canadian-whisky/. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
37. ^ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. pp. 553. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 
38. ^ "June 2007". The Beer Brewer. http://www.beerbrewer.co.uk/2007/06/. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
39. ^ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. pp. 554. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 
40. ^ "Aromas and Flavours". Wine-Pages.com. http://www.wine-pages.com/guests/tom/taste5.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
41. ^ Belitz, Hans-Dieter; Peter Schieberle & Werner Grosch (2004). Food Chemistry. Springer. pp. 383. ISBN 3540408185. http://books.google.com/books?id=_QWbLTSL6HoC. 
42. ^ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. pp. 574. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Whisky

Look up whisky or whiskey in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - whisky, whiskey

Nederlands (Dutch)
whisky

Français (French)
n. - whisky

Deutsch (German)
n. - Whisky

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - ουίσκι

Italiano (Italian)
whisky

Português (Portuguese)
n. - cirrose hepática (f)

Русский (Russian)
виски, двухколесный экипаж, оживленный, ветренный

Español (Spanish)
n. - whisky

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - whisky

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
威士忌酒, 一种轻便马车

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 威士忌酒, 一種輕便馬車

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 위스키, 문자 W를 나타내는 통신 용어

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 軽装二輪馬車の一種, ウイスキー, ウイスキー一杯, ウィスキー

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) الوسكي مسكر, جرعه الوسكي‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮ויסקי (משקה)‬

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