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White Rhinoceros

 
Animal Encyclopedia: White rhinoceros
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Ceratotherium simum

SUBFAMILY

Dicerotinae

TAXONOMY

Ceratotherium simum (Burchell, 1817), Cape Province, South Africa. Two subspecies: C. s. simum in southern Africa and C. s. cottoni in northeast Africa.

OTHER COMMON NAMES

English: Square-lipped rhinoceros; French: Rhinoceros blanc; German: Breitmaul-Nashorn.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The largest rhinoceros, with males weighing to 5,000 lb (2,300 kg), females to 3,800 lb (1,700 kg); shoulder height for males 65–73 in (165–185 cm), females 61–70 in (155–177 cm); head and body length for males 140–150 in (360–380 cm), females 118–143 in (300–363 cm); anterior horn length males 20–47 in (50–120 cm), females 20–62 in (50–158 cm); posterior horn length 6.6–15 in (16–40 cm) in both sexes. The skin is battle-ship gray, with very sparse hairs on the body in the southern form, and none in the northern form, apart from fringes to the ears and the tip of the tail. The head is lengthened, and the lips broad, as adaptations for grazing. The ligament supporting the enormous weight of the head, and associated tissues, causes a hump on the back of the neck to form. The northern sub-species is slightly smaller, appears somewhat longer legged, and has the dorsal profile of the skull slightly less concave than the southern form.

DISTRIBUTION

Historically distributed in two discrete areas, separated by a gap of more than 1,240 mi (2,000 km). In southern Africa, they occurred south of the Zambezi to northern KwaZulu-Natal in the east, and westwards through Botswana and Northern Cape into the northern part of Namibia. The northern subspecies was distributed west of the Nile River, from northern Uganda into southern Sudan, and westwards through northeast Congo and the Central African Republic as far as the southern edge of Chad. However, teeth and rock art indicate that it formerly occurred through much of East Africa until quite recently, and extended as far north as Algeria. Hunting eliminated the southern subspecies over its entire range, except in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi region, but subsequently animals have been reintroduced to parts of the former range. In northeast Africa, the species persists only in the Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

HABITAT

Associated drier forms of savanna in southern Africa, but in the northern range occupies moist savanna, with tall grass prevalent except around termite mounds.

BEHAVIOR

Female home ranges extend over 8–16 mi2 (10–20 km2), including a smaller core area, in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, but encompass 20 mi2 (50 km2) or more in low-density populations, or where habitat conditions are less favorable. Northern white rhinos cover 20–40 mi 2 (50–100 km2) in Uganda and 80–200 mi2 (200–500 km2) in Garamba. Adult males restrict their movements to somewhat smaller areas, which constitute breeding territories. Active for about 50% of the time, both day and night, with most of this time taken up with feeding. There is generally a midday slumbering period, for which animals commonly resort to shady areas on ridge-crests. Wallowing in muddy hollows is a favorite activity, and they emerge coated with mud, which helps remove ticks and reduces the number of biting flies, and may also serve a cooling function. They sometimes lie in pools of water.

The typical group is a mother-offspring pair, but larger groups, including several subadults as well as one or more adult females, are also formed. Subadults almost invariably team up with one or more subadults of similar age, of the same or opposite sex, or with an adult female lacking a calf. Adult males are solitary, except when accompanying females.

Dominant males occupy clearly defined territories from which they exclude other dominant males, but share these with one or more subordinate adult males as well as with cows and sub-adults. These territories cover only 0.4–1 mi2 (0.8–2.5 km2) in the dense Hluhluwe-Umfolozi population, but may expand hugely when there is less pressure, with territories of 20–40 mi2 (50-100 km2) being patrolled in some sparsely populated localities. Males are dominant only within the boundaries of their own territory. Adult males manifest their subordinate status by uttering loud roars and shrieks when confronted by a territory holder, with curled tails indicating their nervousness. Adult females also use loud roars or snorts to deter a bull from a close approach. Occasional fights among males may lead to a change in territorial dominance. Interestingly, the defeated male may remain on in his former territory, provided he behaves submissively when challenged, and foregoes scent marking.

They largely ignore lions, even when a calf is present, although there are occasional records of lions preying on young white rhinos. Hyenas seem less a threat to calves than in the case of the black rhino, perhaps because white rhino calves run ahead of the mother and thus seem to be better protected. The longer but more slender horns of females seem designed to ward off predators.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

The southern form is strictly a grazer, with herbs generally constituting no more than 1% of the diet, and only occasional records of munching on woody browse. Short grasses are the favored food source for most of the year. The grass can be cropped as short as 1 in (25 mm) above soil level. During the later dry season, animals turn to taller grasses, including buffalo grass (Panicum maximum) and red oats grass (Themeda triandra). The northern subspecies favors areas of short grass on termite mounds and after fires, but includes a range of medium-tall grass species in its diet.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Calves can be born throughout the year, but in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi there is a peak in the number of cows on heat following the first rains in early summer, and a corresponding peak in the number of calves born during the late summer/early winter period. Copulation lasts 15–30 minutes, with multiple ejaculations. The cow comes into heat again after about 30 days if the mating was not successful. Almost all matings are by territory holders. Cows seek seclusion before giving birth, either in dense bush or up on hillsides where few other rhinos travel. The gestation period is 16 months, and the newborn infant weighs about 145 lb (65 kg). The older calf is driven away shortly before the birth. Weaning is completed by 15–24 months, and cows come on heat again while the calf is still being suckled. The mean inter-birth interval is 2.5 years for Hluhluwe-Umfolozi (range 1.9–3.5 years), although somewhat longer in some introduced populations. Subadults are itinerants, living in one area for a period, later shifting somewhere else. Females begin estrous cycling around four years of age, and the sub-adult period terminates with the birth of their first calf around 6.5–7.5 years of age. Young males start showing solitary tendencies around eight years of age, and reach the stage when they can challenge successfully for a territory around 10–12 years of age. The maximum life span for a white rhino is about 40 years.

CONSERVATION STATUS

By 2000, more than 10,000 white rhinos existed in the wild, including 1,700 in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, over 3,000 in the Kruger National Park, and about 2,300 on private land in southern Africa. However, the ease with which animals can be tracked down, coupled with the high value of their horns, has led to the elimination of some reintroduced populations. Some hunting of the species is now allowed under strictly controlled conditions, as well as a limited trade in live white rhinos, but not in their horns. A strange new threat in some protected areas is the killing of white rhinos by young male elephants that have reached sexual maturity at an early stage in the absence of older bulls. The future of the northern subspecies is especially precarious, with a total population of only 30 animals in the wild, all in Garamba Park. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.

SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

A whiff of human scent, even at ranges of up to 2,625 ft (800 m), sends rhinos running away. The terror that humans inspire in these animals is a clear indication of the past hunting pressure that almost wiped out the species, not only during the era of guns but much earlier in East Africa. White rhino meat was highly regarded by early European hunters, and other body parts had many uses. Once guns became widely available across southern Africa, white rhinos changed from an abundant and widespread species to the brink of extinction within a few decades. The subsequent recovery of the southern subspecies, from a few score animals to the stage when populations could be reestablished in many parts of their former range, and even in East Africa, is one of the great success stories of conservation.

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WordNet: white rhinoceros
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Home > Library > Literature & Language > WordNet
Note: click on a word meaning below to see its connections and related words.

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: large light-gray African rhinoceros having two horns; endangered; sometimes placed in genus Diceros
  Synonyms: Ceratotherium simum, Diceros simus

Wikipedia: White Rhinoceros
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White Rhinoceros[1]
White rhinoceros in Kruger Park
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Rhinocerotidae
Genus: Ceratotherium
Species: C. simum
Binomial name
Ceratotherium simum
(Burchell, 1817)
Subspecies

Ceratotherium simum simum
Ceratotherium simum cottoni
The White Rhinoceros original range (orange: Northern (C. s. cottoni), green: Southern (C. s. simum)).

The White Rhinoceros or Square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) is one of the five species of rhinoceros that still exist and is one of the few megafaunal species left. It has a wide mouth used for grazing and is the most social of all rhino species. The White Rhino is the most common of all rhinos and consists of two subspecies: the Southern White Rhino, with an estimated 17,480 wild-living animals at the end of 2007 (IUCN 2008), and the much rarer Northern White Rhino. The northern subspecies may have as few as 12 remaining worldwide—8 captive and 4 wild—although the wild population has not been seen since 2006 and may have disappeared entirely.[3]

Contents

Taxonomy and naming

White rhino in the Waterburg

A popular theory of the origins of the name White Rhinoceros is a mistranslation from Dutch to English. The English word "white" in English is said to have been derived by mistranslation of the Dutch word "wijd", which means "wide" in English. The word "wide" refers to the width of the Rhinoceros mouth. So early English-speaking settlers in South Africa misinterpreted the "wijd" for "white" and the rhino with the wide mouth ended up being called the White Rhino and the other one, with the narrow pointed mouth, was called the Black Rhinoceros. Ironically, Dutch (and Afrikaans) later used a calque of the English word, and now also call it a white rhino. This suggests, the words origin lie before codification by Dutch writers. A review of Dutch and Afrikaans literature about the rhinoceros, has failed to produce any evidence that the word wijd was ever used to describe the rhino outside of oral use.[4] Other popular theories suggest the name comes from its wide appearance throughout Africa, its color due to wallowing in calcerous soil or bird droppings or because of the lighter colour of its horn. An alternative common name for the White Rhinoceros, more accurate but rarely used, is the square-lipped rhinoceros. The White Rhinoceros' generic name, Ceratotherium, given by the zoologist John Edward Gray in 1868,[5] is derived from the Greek terms keras (κερας) "horn" and therion (θηριον) "beast". Simum, is derived from the Greek term simus (σιμος), meaning "flat nosed".

Southern White Rhinoceros

White Rhinoceros in Lake Nakuru
White rhino Henry Doorly Zoo in Omaha, Nebraska

There are two subspecies of White Rhinos; the Southern White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum simum) and the Northern White Rhinoceros. As of 31 December 2007, there were an estimated 17,480 Southern White Rhino in the wild (IUCN 2008), making them the most abundant subspecies of rhino in the world. South Africa is the stronghold for this subspecies (93.0%), conserving 16,255 individuals in the wild in 2007 (IUCN 2008). There are smaller reintroduced populations within the historical range of the species in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Swaziland, while a small population survives in Mozambique. Populations have also been introduced outside of the former range of the species to Kenya, Uganda and Zambia (Emslie and Brooks 1999; Emslie et al. 2007).

Wild-caught southern whites will readily breed in captivity given appropriate amounts of space and food, as well as the presence of other female rhinos of breeding age. For instance, 91 calves have been born at the San Diego Wild Animal Park since 1972. However, for reasons that are not currently understood, the rate of reproduction is extremely low among captive-born southern white females.[6]

Northern White Rhinoceros

Main article: Northern White Rhinoceros

The Northern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), formerly found in several countries in East and Central Africa south of the Sahara, is considered Critically Endangered or Extinct in the wild.

As of 2006, there were only four Northern White Rhinos left in the wild according to the WWF.[7] However, in June 2008 it was reported that the subspecies may have become extinct in the wild since none of these four known remaining individuals have been seen since 2006.[3]

Description

White Rhinoceros in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya

The White Rhinoceros is the world's largest land mammal after the elephants.[8] It has a massive body and large head, a short neck and broad chest. The head and body length is 3.4 to 4.2 m (11 to 13.75 ft), with the tail adding another 50 to 70 cm (20 to 27.5 in). The shoulder height is 150–185 cm (59-73 inches). Weight typically ranges from 1,440 to 3,600 kg (3,168 to 7,920 lb), with the male being slightly heavier.[9] The record-sized White Rhinoceros was about 4500 kg (10,000 lb).[10] On its snout it has two horns made of keratin, rather than bone as in deer antlers. The front horn is larger than the other horn and averages 89.9 cm (35 inches) in length and can reach 150 cm (59 inches). The White Rhinoceros also has a noticeable hump on the back of its neck which supports its large head. Each of the rhino's four stumpy feet has three toes. The colour of this animal ranges from yellowish brown to slate grey. The only hair on them is on the ear fringes and tail bristles. White Rhinos have the distinctive flat broad mouth which is used for grazing.

White Rhinos have three distinct toes.

Its ears can move independently to pick up more sounds but it depends most of all on smell. The olfactory passages which are responsible for smell are larger than their entire brain.

Behaviour and ecology

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White Rhinoceros are found in grassland and savannah habitat. Herbivore grazers that eat grass, preferring the shortest grains, the White Rhino is one of the largest pure grazers. Regularly it drinks twice a day if water is available, but if conditions get dry it can live four or five days without water. It spends about half of the day eating, one third resting, and the rest of the day doing various other things. White Rhinos, like all species of rhino, love wallowing in mudholes to cool down.

White rhino female with a young at Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa .

White rhinos can produce sounds which include a panting contact call, grunts and snorts during courtship, squeals of distress, and deep bellows or growls when threatened. Threat displays (in males mostly) include wiping its horn on the ground and a head-low posture with ears back, combined with snarl threats and shrieking if attacked. The White Rhino is quick and agile and can run 30 mph (50 km/h).

White Rhinos can live in a crash or herd of up to 14 animals (usually mostly female). Sub-adult males will congregate, often in association with an adult female. Most adult bulls are solitary. Dominant bulls mark their territory with excrement and urine. The dung is laid in well defined piles. It may have 20-30 of these piles to alert passing rhinos that it's his territory. Another way of marking their territory is wiping his horns on bushes or the ground and scrapes with its feet before urine spraying. They do this around 10 times an hour while patrolling territory. The same ritual as urine marking except without spraying is also commonly used. The territorial male will scrape-mark every 30 yards or so around its territory boundary. Subordinate males do not mark territory. The most serious fights break out over mating rights over a female. Female territory is overlapped extensively and they do not defend it.

Reproduction

Young rhino with mother at Rhino and Lion Nature Reserve, Johannesburg .

Females reach sexual maturity at 6–7 years of age while males reach sexual maturity between 10–12 years of age. Courtship is often a difficult affair. The male stays beyond the point where the female acts aggressively and will give out a call when approaching her. The male chases and or blocks the way of the female while squealing or wailing loudly if the female tries to leave his territory. When ready to mate the female curls its tail and gets into a stiff stance during the half hour copulation. Breeding pairs stay together between 5–20 days before they part their separate ways. Gestation occurs around 16–18 months. A single calf is born and weighs between 40 and 65 kilograms (90 and 140 pounds) and are unsteady for their first 2 to 3 days of life. When threatened the baby will run in front of the mother. The mother is very protective of her calf and will fight for her baby vigorously. Weaning starts at 2 months and may continue suckling for over 12 months. The birth interval for the White Rhino is between 2 and 3 years. Before giving birth the mother will chase off her current calf. White Rhinos can live to be up to 40–50 years old. Adult White Rhinos have no natural predators due to their size,[11] and even young rhinos are rarely preyed on due to the mother's presence.

Distribution

The northern subspecies is now only found in the Republic of Congo while the southern subspecies or majority of White Rhino live in southern Africa. 98.5% of White Rhino occur in just five countries (South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Kenya and Uganda). Almost at the edge of extinction in the early 20th century, the southern subspecies has made a tremendous comeback. In 2001 it was estimated that there were 11,670 White Rhinos in the wild with a further 777 in captivity worldwide, making it the most common Rhino in the world. By the end of 2007 wild-living Southern White Rhino had increased to an estimated 17,480 animals (IUCN 2008).

Like the black rhino, the White Rhino is under threat from habitat loss and poaching, most recently by Janjaweed. The horn is mostly used for traditional medicine although there are no health benefits from the horn; the horn is also used for traditional necklaces. A recent population count in the Republic Congo turned up only 10 rhinos left in the wild, which led conservationists on January 15, 2005 to propose airlifting White Rhinos from Garamba into Kenya. Although official approval was initially obtained, resentment of foreign interference within the Congo has prevented the airlift from happening as of the beginning of 2006. On June 12, 2007 poachers shot the last 2 rhinos in Zambia, injuring one and killing the other. They removed the horn of the deceased rhino.

Distribution of Northern White Rhino

The Northern White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), formerly ranged over parts of north-western Uganda, southern Chad, south-western Sudan, the eastern part of Central African Republic, and north-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).[12] The only confirmed population today occurs in north-eastern DRC.

Poachers reduced their population from 500 to 15 in the 1970s and 1980s. By the early 1990s through mid 2003 the population recovered to more than 32 animals. Surveys in 2000 indicated that the population has started recovering with 30 animals confirmed in 2000 with up to a possible six others.[13] Between 2003 and 2006 poaching intensified and reduced the wild population to only 5 to 10 animals.[14] According to the WWF, there are now only four Northern White Rhinos left in the wild,[7] however in June 2008 it was reported that the species may have gone extinct.[3]

Garamba National Park

The last surviving population of wild Northern White Rhinos are all located in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Recent civil wars and disruptions have been cause for much concern about the status of this last surviving population.[14]

In January 2005, the Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) approved a two-part plan for the translocation of five Northern White Rhino from Garamba National Park to a wildlife sanctuary in Kenya. The second part commits the Government and its international partners to increase conservation efforts in Garamba, so that the Northern White Rhinos can be returned when it is safe again.[2] The translocation has not occurred yet.

In August 2005, ground and aerial surveys conducted under the direction of African Parks Foundation and the African Rhino Specialist Group (ARSG) have only found four animals. A solitary adult male and a group of one adult male and two adult females. Efforts to locate further animals continue.[2] According to Newsweek ("Extinction Trade," March 10, 2008) there were only two Northern White Rhinos alive in Garamba—"a death sentence for that population."

Evolution

The White Rhinoceros of today was said to be likely descended from Ceratotherium praecox which lived around 7 million years ago. Remains of this White Rhino have been found at Langebaanweg near Cape Town.[15] However a review of fossil rhinos in Africa by Denis Geraads has suggested that the species from Langebaanweg is of the genus Ceratotherium, but not Ceratotherium praecox as the type specimen of Ceratotherium praecox should, in fact, be Diceros praecox, as it shows closer affinities with the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis[16]. It has been suggested that the modern White Rhino has a longer skull than Ceratotherium praecox to facilitate consumption of shorter grasses which resulted from the long term trend to drier conditions in Africa.[17]. However if Ceratotherium praecox is in fact Diceros praecox then the shorter skull could indicate a browsing species. Teeth of fossils assigned to Ceratotherium found at Makapansgat in South Africa were analysed for carbon isotopes and the researchers concluded that these animals consumed more than 30% browse in their diet, suggesting that these are not the fossils of the extant Ceratotherium simum which only eats grass[18]. It is suggested that the real lineage of the White Rhino should be; Ceratotherium neumayri - Ceratotherium mauritanicum - C. simum with the Langebaanweg rhinos being Ceratotherium sp. (as yet unnamed), with black rhinos being descended from C. neumayri via Diceros praecox [16]. It is likely then that the ancestor of both the Black and the White rhinos was a mixed feeder, with the two lineages then specialising in browse and graze respectively.

In Zoos

Southern White Rhinoceros at Disney's Animal Kingdom
White Rhinoceros in Poznań New Zoo

Most White Rhinos in zoos are Southern White Rhinos; in 2001 it was estimated that there were 777 White Rhinos in captivity worldwide. The San Diego Wild Animal Park in San Diego, California, U.S.A. previously had three Northern White Rhinos,[14] all of which were wild-caught. Only a female named Nola, and a male named Angalifu remain after the second female, Nadi, died in late May 2007 from what was believed to be old age. Nola is not fertile, and Nadi was not behaviorally receptive, so this captive population is not breeding.

Angalifu is one of the last known male Northern White Rhino in existence. A collaboration was underway between the San Diego Wild Animal Park and the Dvůr Králové Zoo in Dvůr Králové nad Labem, Czech Republic to provide Angalifu's semen to female Rhinos in captivity in the Czech Republic in a final effort to save this subspecies. So far the insemination attempts in Northern White Rhinos have failed and other methods are being considered.

References

  1. ^ Wilson, D. E., and Reeder, D. M. (eds), ed (2005). Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=14100050. 
  2. ^ a b c IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group (2008). Ceratotherium simum. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 20 October 2008.
  3. ^ a b c "News | Environment | Poachers kill last four wild northern white rhinos". Times Online. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951.ece. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 
  4. ^ Rookmaaker, Kees (2003). "Why the name of the white rhinoceros is not appropriate". Pachyderm 34: 88–93. 
  5. ^ Groves, Colin P. (1972). "Ceratotherium simum" (PDF). Mammalian Species (8): 1–6. doi:10.2307/3503966. http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-008-01-0001.pdf. 
  6. ^ Swaisgood, Ron (Summer 2006). "Scientific Detective Work in Practice: Trying to Solve the Mystery of Poor Captive-born White Rhinocerous Reproduction". CRES Report (Zoological Society of San Diego): pp. 1-3. 
  7. ^ a b "WWF | Northern White Rhino". Worldwildlife.org. http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/northernwhiterhinoceros/item587.html. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 
  8. ^ "White Rhinoceros". Honoluluzoo.org. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/white_rhinoceros.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 
  9. ^ Ceratotherium simum. "White Rhinoceros, White Rhinoceros Profile, Facts, Information, Photos, Pictures, Sounds, Habitats, Reports, News - National Geographic". Animals.nationalgeographic.com. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/white-rhinoceros.html. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 
  10. ^ "African Rhinoceros". Safari Now. http://196.36.153.129/cms/african-rhino/irie.aspx. Retrieved 2008-03-19. 
  11. ^ "Wildlife: Rhinoceros". AWF. http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/rhinoceros. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 
  12. ^ Sydney, J. 1965. The past and present distribution of some African ungulates. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 3:1-397.
  13. ^ Hillman Smith, K. 2001. Status of northern white rhinos and elephants in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, during the wars. Pachyderm journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups. July-December 2001. 31: 79-81.
  14. ^ a b c International Rhino Foundation. 2002. Rhino Information - Northern White Rhino. Downloaded from [1] at 19 September 2006.
  15. ^ The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion, J.D. Skinner and RHN Smithers. 1990. 567
  16. ^ a b PLIOCENE RHINOCEROTIDAE (MAMMALIA) FROM HADAR AND DIKKA (LOWER AWASH, ETHIOPIA), AND REVISION OF THE ORIGIN OF MODERN AFRICAN RHINOS, Denis Geraads, 2005
  17. ^ Evolving Eden: An Illustrated Guide to the Evolution of the African Large-Mammal Fauna, Alan Turner and Mauricio Anton. 2004. 224
  18. ^ Isotopic palaeoecology of Makapansgat Limeworks Perissodactyla, M. Sponheimer, K. Reed and J.A. Lee-Thorp, 2001

Further Reading

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