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William Berkeley

 
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Sir William Berkeley
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(born 1606, Somerset, Eng. — died July 9, 1677, Twickenham, Middlesex) British colonial governor of Virginia. Appointed governor in 1641, he introduced crop diversification, encouraged manufacturing, and promoted peace with the Indians. A strong monarchist, he was forced to retire to his Virginia plantation during the Commonwealth period in England (1652 – 59). Reappointed in 1660, he faced crop failures and Indian attacks on the frontier. In 1676 Nathaniel Bacon mounted an expedition against the Indians in defiance of Berkeley's policy of fostering trade. Berkeley fought Bacon for control of the colony, which he eventually regained.

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US Military Dictionary: Sir William Berkeley
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Berkeley, Sir William (1606-77) royal governor (1641-52, 1660-77) and captain general of Virginia, born in or near London. Berkeley's second term was strained by economic hardships in the colony, accusations of favoritism toward elite inner circle, deprivation of freemen's rights, and neglect of frontiersmen against Indian attacks. Widespread discontent exploded in Bacon's Rebellion (1676). After Nathaniel Bacon died and the insurrection collapsed, Berkeley, disregarding a royal commission to pardon the rebels, ordered many of them hanged; summoned back to London, he died there before meeting with the king.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.

Biography: Sir William Berkeley
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Sir William Berkeley (1606-1677), English royal governor of the colony of Virginia, was a leading protagonist in Bacon's Rebellion. He made substantial contributions to the colony but was almost fanatically loyal to England.

William Berkeley was the son of Maurice Berkeley of Bruton, Somerset, and brother of Lord John Berkeley, a proprietor of Carolina. William was educated at Oxford, where he received a bachelor of arts degree in 1624 and a master of arts in 1629. Because of his family's influence at court, Berkeley won a place in the Privy Chamber and became a leading courtier. He exhibited literary skill; one of his plays, The Lost Lady, was published in 1639 and was later produced on the London stage. Berkeley was knighted by Charles I in July 1639.

Colonial Service

Berkeley's first chance for service in America came in 1632, when he was made one of England's commissioners for Canada. In 1641 Charles I appointed Berkeley governor of Virginia. The problems facing him in Virginia were formidable. He mollified disgruntled planters by granting them an important role in the government and rectifying abuses of previous administrations. Berkeley's vigorous prosecution of the Native American wars was crucial in winning the Virginians' confidence. He pressed the campaign on the frontiers, personally taking the field to command, and captured the aged Native American chief Opechancanough, thereby gaining a period of relative peace. His resolute action unified the colonists behind his leadership.

The unity which Berkeley engendered was exemplified during the Puritan Revolution in England. The governor's prestige ensured that Virginia would remain loyal to the Stuart cause. After Charles I was beheaded in 1649, Berkeley denounced Cromwell and proclaimed Charles II king of England. Eventually, in 1652, when Virginia was forced to submit to Cromwell's authority, Berkeley resigned his office and retired to his plantation at Green Spring, Va. Just prior to the Restoration (1660), the Virginia Assembly chose Berkeley to serve as governor until Charles II's wishes were known - a token of the high regard in which Berkeley was held.

The Restoration

Upon Charles II's assumption of the throne in 1660, Berkeley was reappointed governor. Visiting England in 1661, he demonstrated the dual loyalty to the Stuarts and Virginia that characterized his career. He had returned to England both to pay homage to the new ruler and to support Virginia's complaints against new mercantile legislation. Evidence of Charles II's satisfaction with Berkeley was the designation of Virginia as the King's "Old Dominion." Moreover, Berkeley was included among the eight proprietors of Carolina. But Berkeley was less successful in his work for the colony of Virginia. He could do nothing to relax the mercantile requirement that Virginia's tobacco be shipped to England. In a pamphlet (1662) he noted that thousands of Virginians were thereby "impoverished to enrich little more than forty [English] merchants." He returned to the colony with little to show for his efforts.

Bacon's Rebellion

The uprising known as Bacon's Rebellion (1675-1676) reflected Berkeley's failure during his last years as governor. Within a short period, the governor, who had been called "the Darling of the People," became a party to the struggle that has marred his reputation ever since.

There were several causes of Bacon's Rebellion: economic depression (resulting in part from English mercantile legislation), fears regarding the territorial integrity of Virginia, heavy taxation, inequities in the tax burden, and lingering complaints about local government. These afforded the fuel for rebellion; what provided the spark was renewed conflict with the bordering Native Americans. Because Berkeley reacted slowly to the Native American danger, vigilante forces were organized to protect the frontiers. Some colonists charged that Berkeley's lack of action was a result of his personal involvement in the Native American trade. Berkeley misjudged the situation. Nearing 70 years old in 1675, stubborn and irascible, he felt action by frontiersmen would make the situation worse. After a young planter, Nathaniel Bacon, demanded a commission to fight the Native Americans and then went into battle without the governor's consent, Berkeley proclaimed Bacon a rebel and removed him from the council. A state of civil war resulted, with Bacon holding the stronger hand.

Berkeley's Ignominy

The fury of Bacon's Rebellion was directed primarily against the Native Americans. The confrontation with Berkeley had always been uncertain, because he still retained the post of governor. After Bacon died in October 1676, the rebellion began to wane. Berkeley unwisely took vengeance by executing 23 rebel leaders and confiscating their property. He continued the executions over the objections of the King's commissioners, who were sent to replace Berkeley and report on conditions in Virginia. Instead of peace, a strained situation resulted, with Berkeley defying the King's commissioners. Finally, his health broken, Berkeley sailed unhappily for England. "The King is not a little surprised to find a person, who has been so loyal, fall into such errors," Berkeley was informed. He soon died, never having an opportunity to defend himself before the King he revered.

Further Reading

A biographical account of Berkeley may be found in Philip Alexander Bruce, The Virginia Plutarch (2 vols., 1929). Two conflicting estimates of Berkeley's career and role in Bacon's Rebellion are offered in Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Torchbearer of the Revolution: The Story of Bacon's Rebellion and Its Leader (1940), and in Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia (1957). An excellent summary of the evidence is in Wesley Frank Craven, The Colonies in Transition: 1660-1713 (1967). Readers interested in the first years of the Southern colonies can rely on Craven's The Southern Colonies in the Seventeenth Century: 1607-1689 (1949). Authoritative also is Richard L. Morton, Colonial Virginia (2 vols., 1960).

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: Sir William Berkeley
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Berkeley, Sir William, 1606-77, colonial governor of Virginia. Appointed governor in 1641, he arrived in Virginia in 1642. Berkeley defeated the Native Americans and the Dutch, extended explorations, and encouraged agriculture, but so persecuted dissenters that many of them left the colony. An uncompromising royalist, he made Virginia a haven for supporters of Charles I and declined to recognize the Commonwealth. Berkeley was deposed by a Puritan force from England in 1652 and lived quietly on his Virginia plantation until the Restoration in 1660, when he was reappointed governor. His second term as governor was marred by great domestic discontent and strife. A drop in tobacco prices brought great economic suffering to the colony. At the same time it was charged that Berkeley was showing favoritism toward a small group of friends and depriving the freemen of their rights. When, in addition, Berkeley refused to take the measures demanded by the frontiersmen for protection against the Native Americans, Bacon's Rebellion broke out. Temporarily forced to flee, Berkeley regained power after Bacon's premature death and ordered the hanging of many of Bacon's followers. The executions were carried out in defiance of a royal commission that had arrived with pardon for all except Bacon. Finally he yielded to the commission's order that he return to England, where he died discredited.

Bibliography

See T. J. Wertenbaker, Virginia under the Stuarts, 1607-1688 (1914); W. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel (1957).

Artist: Lennox Berkeley
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  • Period: Modern (1910-1949)
  • Country: England
  • Born: May 12, 1903 in Boars Hill, Oxford, England
  • Died: December 26, 1989 in London, England
  • Genres: Chamber Music, Choral Music, Concerto, Miscellaneous Music, Opera, Orchestral Music

Biography

Though his profile outside the United Kingdom was overshadowed somewhat by the illustrious careers of Walton, Tippett, and Britten, Sir Lennox Berkeley left an indelible mark on British music in the twentieth century. A student of Nadia Boulanger with an ear for songlike lyricism, Berkeley established a style that combined French melodic elegance with English triadic sonority and neo-Classical clarity.

Berkeley was born into an aristocratic family, but lost out on his inheritance because his birth had preceded his parents' marriage. He nonetheless enjoyed a relatively comfortable childhood and eventually arrived at Oxford, where he studied French. (This academic background lent his later songs on French texts a particularly elegant contour.) Ravel, upon examining some of Berkeley's student compositions, encouraged him to focus on musical studies and recommended him for study with Nadia Boulanger. Berkeley was well-suited to Boulanger's infamously methodic, craft-like approach, and thrived under her tutelage. Works such as his Serenade, Op. 12, and the Divertimento, Op. 18, which remain in the British orchestral repertoire, resonate with Boulanger's influence; Peter Dickinson has described the Finale of the latter piece as "a cross between Haydn and Poulenc." Berkeley's piano works and chamber pieces demonstrate a similar disposition. Also, during his time in Paris, he converted Catholicism, a decision that would infuse his later vocal and choral works, such as the Missa brevis, with a particular spiritual fervor. As a young composer he maintained his friendship with Ravel, and also made the acquaintance of Poulenc; in fact, much of his music betrays the influence of Les Six.

Berkeley was employed for a time as a programmer for the BBC during World War II, then in 1946 took a position at the Royal Academy of Music, where he remained on the faculty for over two decades and mentored a number of important figures in the subsequent generation, including Bennett, Maw, and, most familiar to non-Brits, John Tavener. Berkeley counted Britten among his closest friends, and, following Britten's revival of British opera, he wrote a number of operatic works as well, including the successful A Dinner Engagement. A subsequent opera, Faldon Park, remained incomplete in the composer's later life. In fact, his faculties gradually deteriorated over the course of several years preceding his death in 1989. His last years were spent, rather, receiving the honors due him; subsequent to his knighthood in 1974, he received numerous accolades and an honorary degree from the international musical community. ~ Jeremy Grimshaw, All Music Guide

Discography

Berkeley Conducts Berkeley

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Berkeley Conducts Berkeley

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Wikipedia: William Berkeley
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For the 15th-century marquess, see Marquess of Berkeley.
Sir William Berkeley.

Sir William Berkeley (pronounced "bark-lee" - or "berk-lee" in modern-day Virginia, 2009) (Hanworth Manor, Middlesex 1605–Berkeley House, Mayfair, London July 9, 1677) was a governor of Virginia, appointed by King Charles I, of whom he was a favorite.

He was governor from 1641-1652 and 1660-1677. As proprietor of Green Spring Plantation in James City County, he experimented with activities such as growing silkworms as part of his efforts to expand the tobacco-based economy of the colony of Virginia.

Berkeley enacted friendly policies toward the Native Americans that led to the revolt by some of the planters in 1676 which became known as Bacon's Rebellion. In the aftermath, King Charles II was angered by the retribution exacted against the rebels by Governor Berkeley and recalled him to England.

Soldiering in the First and Second Bishops' Wars (1639-1640) gained Berkeley a knighthood [1].

Contents

Early life and schooling

The Berkeley lineage was thought to descend from Norse corsairs that scourged the British Isles during the Viking Age.[2]:p2

Berkeley was born in 1605 to Sir Maurice and Elizabeth Killigrew Berkeley, both of whom held stock in the Virginia Company of London.[1] Referred to as “Will” by his family and friends,[3]:p5 was born in the winter of 1605 into landed gentry.[3]:p2 His father died when he was twelve and, though indebted, left Berkeley land in Somerset.[3]:p5

Young Berkeley showed signs of a quick wit and broad learning.[3]:p6 His informal education consisted of observing his elders; from them he learned “the mores that governed the larger English society and his privileged place in it.”[3]:p6 Also, as part of the English country gentry, he was aware of agricultural practices,[3]:p6 knowledge which would influence his actions as governor of Virginia.

Though his father died in debt, Berkeley secured a proper education. He entered grammar school at about six or seven years old where he became literate in Latin and English.[3]:p6 At eighteen, like the other Berkeley men, he entered Oxford. He began his studies at Queen’s College in the footsteps of his forebears, but quickly transferred to St. Edmund Hall, a “throwback to medieval times”.[3]:p7 He received, though not necessarily completed, a B.A. in fifteen months of his arrival at the Hall.[3]:p8

All undergraduates at St. Edmund Hall received a personal tutor.[3]:p8 While the identity of Berkeley’s tutor is unsure, his effect upon the boy showed through William’s “disciplined intellect and steady appetite for knowledge”.[3]:p8

Playwright

In 1632, he gained a place in the household of Charles I. That position gave him entré into a court literary circle know as "The Wits"

Berkeley wrote several plays, one of which—The Lost Lady: A Tragy Comedy—was performed for Charles I and Henrietta Maria and was published in 1638. It is also included in the first and fourth editions of Dodsley's "Old Plays," and "A Description of Virginia" (1663).

The Lost Lady

Synopsis

Taking place at an unknown point in Ancient Greece, the plot is introduced via a dialogue between the courier Agenor and Phygitian, a servant of Prince Lysicles. We learn that the Prince has been in a state of anguish ever since the death of his mistress Milesia, so miserable in fact, that “his whole frame is of such making, as if despair had been the architect.”[4]:p2 Phygitian then recounts the story of a war between Thessaly and Sparta. After Lysicles’s father leads Thessaly to a victory over the Duke of Argos and his Spartan forces, the Duke sets in motion an elaborate revenge plot, “the obscurest path that ever time revealed”.[4]:p3 Libeled, disgraced, and hunted by both friend and foe alike, the Duke seeks refuge in the royal court of Lysicles. Using his cunning and eloquence, he gains the trust of Prince Lysicles to the point where he gains access to valuable military secrets, at which point he quickly flees and shares his information with the Spartan king. However, before he leaves he discovers that his niece and traveling companion Milesia has begun an affair with Prince Lysicles, his sworn enemy. In a fit of rage, he kills her and takes her head to Sparta as a trophy. Now Lysicles is a hollow shell of a man, resolving to live only after a botched suicide attempt, and even then only allowing his thirst for revenge to give himself life.

“What furies governe man?”[4]:p5 asks Agenor in the play's opening scene. Indeed, in its darker moments, Berkeley chooses to have his characters display some of the worst states of human misery. Suicide and murder are recurring throughout, and more than one character is inflicted with seemingly incurable melancholy and depression. And yet, the play is able to blend the serious drama of Lysicles’s revenge plot with the light-hearted courtship comedy that centers around the character of Hermione and her hyperbolic suitor Ergasto. Pursued by Prince Lysicles and still wishing to be reunited with her banished love Eugenio, she is forced to tread lightly while still trying to appease her strict, opportunistic and abusive father, who “loves no virtue but what shines through wealth”.[4]:p36 Though Lysicles’s vengeance nearly does him in, the play ends in typical comedic fashion: Lysicles is reunited with his lost lover, Eugenio returns from banishment, and even the comedic Ergasto falls in love with the shrew-like Irene, giving a happy ending to a rather dark comedy.

Key Themes

Fate and the Dangers of Self-Pity

Taking several cues from classical Greek drama, the characters of “The Lost Lady” frequently resort to the language of fate and destiny to describe their feelings of helplessness as events beyond their power continue to unfold around them. However, there are numerous warnings about lapsing into a state of hopeless self-pity, provided chiefly by the characters of Hermione and Prince Lysicles. Both feel so overwhelmed by the situations that they lapse into themselves, constantly lamenting their own fate rather than attempting to figure a way out of their respective dilemmas. Lysicles hinges his entire hopes for future happiness upon his thoughts and revenge and longing for Hermione, while Hermione is so paralyzed by misery she must be forced by Milesia, disguised as Acanthe the Moor, to put a plan into action. Ironically, the words of wisdom are placed in the mouth of the Moor, typically the villainous and demonized character of medieval theater, as Acanthe the fortune-teller states “All I know is but conjectured, for our stars encline, not force us in our actions”.[4]:p15

Revenge

“Revenge doth master all our passions, that are not servants to her rage”[4]:p4 says the servant of Prince Lsycicles. Using the common revenge-plot to set the narrative for Prince Lysicles, his thirst for vengeance is very nearly his downfall. However, the typical revenge scheme, in which the avenger loses himself and his values in his relentless pursuit, is somewhat turned upon his head. Instead, Lysicles nearly ends up killing Milesia who has disguised herself as Acanthe the Moor, almost destroying a chance to be reunited with his lost love, a chance he did not even know he had.

Suicide

As members of the cast struggle to cope with their dark emotions, the thought of suicide crosses their mind numerous times. Prince Lysicles himself attempted to end himself after hearing of the death of Milesia and continues to ponder trying again once his revenge is fulfilled, while even Hermione entertains the thought when she learns she must be wed to Ergasto. Once Lysicles realizes his error in nearly killing Milesia in his attempt to avenge her, he asks, “If life be given as a blessing to us, what law compels us to preserve it longer, than we can face a possibility of being happy in it”.[4]:p45 Asking who would else would be injured if he decided to end his own life, his old friend Eugenio provides the answer as he returns from banishment. When Lysicles asks Eugenio to take his life, Eugenio requests that Lysicles end his life in return. Lysicles is shocked by the notion of losing a close friend, and is brought face-to-face with his own hypocrisy.

Governorship

Berkeley replaced Sir Francis Wyatt as Governor of Virginia in 1641.[1]

Contributions as a planter

Berkeley’s main initiative when he first became governor was to encourage diversification of Virginia’s agricultural products. He accomplished this through passing laws and by setting himself up as an example for planters [5]:p331


Arriving at Jamestown in 1642, Berkeley erected Green Spring House on a tract of land west of the capital, where he experimented with alternatives to tobacco.[1] It was at Green Spring that he planted such diverse crops as “corn, wheat, barley, rye, rape, tobacco,[2] p.67</ref> oranges, lemons, grapes,[2]:p66 sugar and silk.[2]:p70 Berkeley devoted much of his time as a planter to experimenting with alternatives to tobacco; although he always produced the crop, he “despised” it.[2]:p67

Berkeley produced flax, fruits, potash, rice, silk, and spirits which he exported through a commercial network that joined Green Spring to markets in North America, the West Indies, Great Britain, and Holland.[1]

As a planter, with Virginia in mind, Berkeley constantly attempted to determine the best crops for the state through trial and error.[2]:p68

Political thought

For Berkeley, the path towards Virginia’s prosperity was fourfold: a diverse economy; free trade; a close-knit colonial society; and autonomy from London.[1] He proceeded to turn this thought into action in various ways. In order to support a diversified economy and free trade, for instance, he used his own plantation as an example. Virginia’s autonomy from London was supported in the General Assembly’s role in the colony’s governance. The Assembly was, in effect, a “miniature Parliament.”[1] The colony’s autonomy from London was also advocated by Berkeley in his efforts against the revival of the Virginia Company of London.[1]

Berkeley was “bitterly hostile” to Virginia’s Puritans and Quakers. In an attempt to oppress them, Berkeley helped enact a law to “preserve the Established Church’s [The Church of England] Unity and purity of doctrine.” It punished any minister who preached outside the teachings and doctrine of this church, thus oppressing Puritans, Quakers, and any other religious minority [6]:p254

Berkeley strongly opposed public education. Though he was unable to foresee the eventual establishment of such schools, he held that they would bring “disobedience, heresy, and sects into the world,” and were for such reasons destructive to society. He also held printing at the same level as public education.[7]:p271

Downfall

Berkeley’s downfall came with the advent of his second term. He returned from retirement in 1660 due to the early death of Governor Samuel Mathews Junior.[1] At his return, Berkeley appealed to England for financial support of Virginia’s economy. Charles II denied Berkeley’s appeal “in favor of free trade.”[1]

In 1675, Berkeley appointed Nathaniel Bacon, his wife's cousin, to Virginian high office.[2]:p234 This was uncharacteristic of Berkeley, and may have shown signs of withering competence as governor.

Slow to act to Indian attacks, Berkeley was viewed as incompetent, making his authority easy to undermine.[1] Disagreements over Indian policy led Bacon to rebel against Berkeley.[1] Bacon accepted command of an illegal troop of Indian fighters and disregarded the governor's warning against leading the volunteers.[1] “He declared Bacon a rebel, dissolved the General Assembly, and promised to remedy any complaints the voters had with him.”[1]

Bacon unexpectedly led five hundred armed men into Jamestown and compelled the frightened legislators to appoint him general before he marched away in search of the Indians. His extortion of a general's commission turned a dispute over Indian policy into a duel to the death over who would control Virginia-Bacon or Berkeley.

“Berkeley defeated Bacon's invaders, which enabled him to return to the western shore and to retake his capital. Once reports of the revolt reached London, the crown sent 1,000 redcoats, ships, and a commission to crush Bacon. There was nothing for the troops to do because Berkeley had regained the upper hand. The rebellion ended before they arrived in January 1677. The Treaty of Middle Plantation, the formal peace treaty between the Indians and the colonists, was signed on 29 May 1677, after Berkeley returned to England.”[1]

Berkeley died on July 9, 1677, and he was “buried half a world away from the place that had become his home.”[1]

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Billings, Warren M Sir William Berkeley Virtual Jamestown, 30 Mar. 2009
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Billings Warren M ???? 2006
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Billings, Warren M Sir William Berkeley and the Forging of Colonial Virginia, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 2004
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Berkeley, Sir William. The Lost Lady: a Tragy Comedy, London: Okes, 1639
  5. ^ Bruce, Phillip Alexander, LL.D. Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century. 2 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1935
  6. ^ Bruce, Phillip Alexander, LL.D. Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century. Vol. 1 (of 2 vols), Gloucester: G.P. Putnam’s Son’s, 1964.
  7. ^ Brown, Robert E. and B. Katherine Virginia 1705-1786: Democracy or Aristocracy? East Langston: Michigan State UP, 1964

Further reading

  • Hitchens, Harold Lee. "Sir William Berkeley, Virginian Economist." The William and Mary Quarterly 2nd ser. 18 (1938): 158-73. JSTOR. Sojourner Truth, New Paltz. 23 Mar. 2009 <http://http://www.jstor.org/stable/1923496>.
  • Sydenstricker, Edgar, and Ammen Lewis Burger. School History of Virginia. Lynchburg: Dulaney-Boatwright, 1914.
  • Biography in John T. Kneebone et al., eds., Dictionary of Virginia Biography (Richmond: The Library of Virginia, 1998– ), 1:454–458. ISBN 0-88490-189-0

External links

Government offices
Preceded by
Francis Wyatt		 Colonial Governor of Virginia
1642–1652		 Succeeded by
Richard Bennett
Preceded by
Samuel Mathews		 Colonial Governor of Virginia
1660–1677		 Succeeded by
2nd Baron Colepeper
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Colonial Governors of Virginia

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