William I of England

William the Conqueror
The Duke of Normandy in the Bayeux Tapestry
King of England
Reign	25 December 1066 – 9 September 1087
Coronation	25 December 1066
Predecessor	Edgar II (uncrowned) (otherwise) Harold II
Successor	William II
Duke of the Normans
Reign	3 July 1035 – 9 September 1087
Predecessor	Robert the Magnificent
Successor	Robert Curthose
Spouse	Matilda of Flanders
Detail Issue
Robert Curthose Richard of Normandy William II of England Cecilia of Normandy Adeliza Agatha of Normandy Constance of Normandy Adela, Countess of Blois Henry I of England
House	Norman dynasty
Father	Robert I, Duke of Normandy
Mother	Herleva of Falaise
Born	c. 1028[1] Château de Falaise, Falaise, Normandy, France
Died	9 September 1087(1087-09-09) (aged 58–59) Convent of St. Gervais, Rouen, France
Burial	Saint-Étienne de Caen, France

William I (c. 1028^[1] – 9 September 1087), also known as William the Conqueror (in French: Guillaume le Conquérant), was the first Norman King of England from 1066 until 1087. He was also Duke of Normandy from 3 July 1035 until his death, under the name William II. Before his conquest of England, he was known as William the Bastard (Guillaume le Bâtard) because of the illegitimacy of his birth.

To press his claim to the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans, Bretons, Flemings, and Frenchmen (from Paris and Île-de-France) to victory over the English forces of King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings, and suppressed subsequent English revolts in what has become known as the Norman Conquest.

William of Malmesbury reported of William: "He was of just stature, extraordinary corpulence, fierce countenance; his forehead bare of hair; of such strength of arm that it was often a matter of surprise that no one was able to draw his bow, which he himself could bend when his horse was on full gallop; he was majestic whether sitting or standing, although the protuberance of his belly deformed his royal person: of excellent health so that he was never confined with any dangerous disorder except at the last."^[2]

William's heavy taxes, together with the exactions of the Norman landlords he put in power, reduced the great mass of Anglo-Saxon freemen to serfdom. By 1086, the Domesday Book showed that England comprised 12% freeholders; 35% serfs or villeins; 30% cotters and borders; and 9% slaves.^[3] William was one of the foremost soldiers of the medieval era, conquering a large kingdom from a smaller base. He also created a feudal state with a strong central government.

William's reign, which imposed Norman culture and leadership on England, reshaped England in the Middle Ages. The details of that impact and the extent of the changes have been debated by scholars for centuries. In addition to the obvious change of ruler, his reign also saw a programme of building and fortification, changes to the English language, a shift in the upper levels of society and the church, and adoption of some aspects of continental church reform.

Background

Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the later 8th century, with permanent settlement occurring sometime before 911, when an agreement between Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France, in which the king surrendered the county of Rouen to Rollo, although whether Rollo took the title is unclear. The county of Rouen became the core of the later duchy of Normandy.^[4] In the later part of the 10th century, Danish and other Vikings resumed raiding the shores of England and they may have used Normandy as a base of operations. If they did use Normandy in this manner, it would have contributed to the worsening of relations between England and Normandy, in which the papacy under Pope John XV took a hand by mediating a peace treaty in March 991, whereby Duke Richard of Normandy and King Æthelred II of England agreed to not shelter the enemies of the other.^[5] Danish raids continued, however,^[6] and in 1002, Æthelred tried again to stem the ability of the raiders using Normandy by marrying Emma of Normandy, daughter of Duke Richard I, and sister of the current duke, Richard II.^[7]

Although the marriage was meant to help eliminate the raids and improve relations between the duchy and the kingdom, it doesn't appear to have worked completely. The Danes under King Swein Forkbeard continued to raid England, and may have come to an agreement with Duke Richard to sell the English plunder only in Normandy in exchange for allowing the Danish wounded to recover in Normandy. Æthelred, however, also sought help from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when Swein drove Æthelred and his family from England. Swein's death in 1014 allowed Æthelred to return to England, but Swein's son Cnut contested Æthelred's return. Æthelred himself died unexpectedly in 1016 and Cnut became king of England. Æthelred and Emma's two sons, Edward and Alfred remained in exile in Normandy while their mother, Emma, married Cnut as his second wife.^[8]

When Cnut died in 1035, his son by his first wife Harold Harefoot succeeded in England while his son by Emma, Harthacnut, became king in Denmark. England remained unstable, however, and Alfred returned to England to visit his mother, and perhaps challenge Harold as king. Alfred, however, was killed, with one story implicating Earl Godwin of Wessex, and others blaming Harold for Alfred's death. Emma then went into exile in Flanders, but in 1040, Harold died and Harthacnut became king, and he summoned both his mother and his half-brother Edward to England. When Harthacnut died in June 1042, Edward was proclaimed king before Harthacnut was buried.^[9]

Early life

Château de Falaise in Falaise, Calvados, France, was the birthplace of William the Conqueror.

William was born in either 1027 or 1028 in Falaise, Normandy, France, most likely in the autumn of the later year.^{[1][10][11][a][b]} William was the only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, as well as the grandnephew of Emma, wife successively of two English kings – Æthelred the Unready and Cnut the Great.^[13] His mother, Herleva was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise, who may have been a tanner or embalmer. She later married Herluin de Conteville and had two sons with Herluin – Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain. Herluin and Herleva also had a daughter, who's name is not recorded, who married William, lord of La Ferte-Mace. Herleva also had a daughter, Adelaide of Normandy, possibly another child of Robert's but all that is known for sure is that Adelaide was not the daughter of Herluin. Besides William's half-siblings (or in the case of Adelaide, possibly full sister), Herleva also had two brothers – Osbern and Walter, with Walter being one of William's supporters and protectors during his minority.^[12][c]

Robert, William's father, became Duke of Normandy on 6 August 1027, in succession to his elder brother Richard III, who had only succeeded to the title in 1026, after the death of Richard and Robert's father Richard II.^[1] Robert and the younger Richard had been at odds over the succession, and Richard's death was very sudden. Robert was accused by some writers of killing his brother, a possible but unprovable charge. Richard had left a young son, Nicholas, who immediately was made a monk at his father's death while his uncle became duke.^[14] Conditions in Normandy were unsettled when Robert became duke, with noble families despoiling the church and a war with Alan III of Brittany, who perhaps hoped to take control of Normandy. In 1028, Duke Robert besieged his uncle, Robert, the Archbishop of Rouen, and forced the archbishop into exile. However, by 1031, the duke and archbishop had reconciled, and with the archbishop's help, Alan and the duke reached a truce which may have included Alan's performance of homage to the duke. Archbishop Robert then became one of the strongest supporters of Duke Robert, and was joined by a number of noblemen who were to rise to prominence during William's life. Included among these noblemen were Osbern, a nephew of Gunnor the wife of Duke Richard I, and Count Gilbert of Brionne, who was a grandson of Richard I.^[15]

In 1034, Duke Robert decided to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Although a number of his supporters tried to persuade him from going, pointing out that there was no heir. Robert convened a council and had the assembled Norman magnates swear fealty to William as his heir. Robert then departed on his journey and died in early July 1035 at Nicea while returning to Normandy.^[16]

Duke of Normandy

The new duke faced a number of challenges, including his illegitimate birth and his young age,^[17] which is variously given as either eight years old^[18] or the slightly younger seven years of age.^[17] William enjoyed the support of his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, as well as the king of France, Henry I, and this enabled the young duke to succeed to his father's duchy. But Archbishop Robert's death in March 1037 removed one of William's main supports, and conditions in Normandy descended into chaos quickly.^[19] The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047,^[20] and control of the young duke was one of the prime concerns of those contending for power. At first, Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke, but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040, Gilbert of Brionne took control of William. Gilbert was killed within months, and another guardian, Turchetil was also killed around the time of Gilbert's death.^[21] Another guardian, Osbern, was killed in the early 1040s in William's sleeping chamber while the duke was sleeping. Walter, William's maternal uncle, was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in peasant houses.^[22] Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William's minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William also.^[23]

Column at the site of the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes

King Henry continued to give support to the young duke, helping at a siege in the early 1040s.^[24] In late 1046, however, forces opposed to William began to come together in a co-ordinated rebellion centered in lower Normandy and led by Guy of Burgundy, with the further support from Nigel, viscount of the Cotentin and Rannulf, viscount of the Bessin. According to stories which may have legendary elements, an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes, but the duke escaped by night and made his way to King Henry to ask for help.^[25] However the French king's support was gained, in early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and fought the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes near Caen, which was won by William and Henry, although few details of the actual fighting are recorded.^[26] The battle marked William's assumption of authority in Normandy, and he marked it by promulgating the Truce of God throughout Normandy shortly after the battle.^[27] Although the battle marked a turning point in William's control of the duchy, it was not the end of William's struggles to gain the upper hand over his nobles. The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare and smaller crises continued up until 1060.^[28]

William's first efforts were against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at Brionne, which William was forced to besiege it, and the duke only succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050.^[29] Another problem was the growing power of Geoffrey Martel, the count of Anjou.^[30] William joined with King Henry in a campaign against Anjou, but this was the last known cooperation between William and the French king. Although the campaign captured an Angevin fortress, little else was accomplished.^[31] Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of Maine, especially after the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051. Central to the control of Maine was the holdings of the family of Bellême, who held Bellême on the border of Maine and Normandy.^[30] On the death of Hugh of Maine, Geoffrey of Anjou occupied Maine, but this move was contested by William and King Henry, and eventually they managed to drive Geoffrey from Maine. In the process, William was able to secure the strongholds at Alençon and Domfort for himself.^[32] In 1052, however, the king and Geoffrey of Anjou made common cause against William at the same time as some Norman nobles began to contest the growing power of William.^[33] Throughout 1053, William was involved in military actions against his own nobles,^[34] as well as the new Archbishop of Rouen, Mauger.^[35] In February 1054 both the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy. The main thrust was led by Henry and came through the county of Évreux while the other wing, under the French king's brother Odo, invaded eastern Normandy.^[36]

William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two groups. The first group, which he led, faced the Henry, while the second, which included a number of men who became firm supporters of William such as Robert, Count of Eu, Walter Giffard, Roger of Mortemer, and William de Warenne, faced the other invading force. This second force defeated the invaders at the Battle of Mortemer. Besides ending both invasions, the battle also allowed the ecclesiastical supporters of the duke to depose Mauger from the archbishopric of Rouen. Thus, Mortemer marked another turning point in William's growing control of the duchy,^[37] but fighting with the French king as well as the Count of Anjou continued 1060, when Henry died in August and Geoffrey of Anjou died in November.^[38] Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057, but were defeated by William at the Battle of Varaville. This was the last invasion into Normandy during William's lifetime, and the deaths of the count and the king cemented the change in the balance of power towards William.^[39]

One factor that helped William was his marriage to Matilda of Flanders, the daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. The marriage was arranged in 1049, but Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council of Rheims in October 1049. But the marriage went forward during the early 1050s,^[40][d] possibly without papal sanction. According to a late source, papal approval was was not secured until 1059, but the source for this is not considered generally reliable. Further corroboration is the fact that papal-Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good, with Norman clergy visiting Rome in 1050 without incident.^[42] Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen – one by William and one by Matilda.^[43] The marriage itself was important in bolstering William's power, as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories, with ties to the French royal house as well as to the German emperors.^[42]

English and continental concerns

In 1051, King Edward of England appears to have decided that William was to be his successor on the English throne. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in the "D" version, goes so far as to state that William visited England in the later part of 1051, perhaps to secure confirmation of the succession,^[44] or perhaps William was attempting to secure aid for his troubles in Normandy.^[45] The trip is unlikely given William's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time. It was likely that any claim by William would be opposed by Godwin, the Earl of Wessex and his family, who were the most powerful family in England.^[44] Edward had married Edith, Godwin's daughter, in 1043, and Godwin appears to have been one of the main supporters of Edward's claim to the throne.^[46] But by 1050, relations between the king and the earl had soured, which in 1051 broke into a crisis that led to Godwin and his family's exile from England. It was during this exile that Edward offered the throne to William.^[47] Godwin, however, returned from exile in 1052 with armed forces and a settlement was reached between the king and the earl, with the earl and his family being restored to their lands and the replacement of Robert of Jumièges, a Norman who Edward had named Archbishop of Canterbury, with Stigand, the Bishop of Winchester.^[48] No English source mentions a supposed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the succession, and the two Norman sources which mention it, William of Jumièges and William of Poitiers, are not precise on their chronology of when this visit took place.^[45]

Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing Harold swearing an oath of fealty to William.

In 1062, Count Herbert II of Maine died, and William, who's eldest son Robert was betrothed to the sister of Herbert, claimed the county through his son. This was resisted by the local nobles, but William invaded the county and by 1064 had secured control of the area.^[49] William appointed a Norman to the bishopric of Le Mans in 1065 as well as allowing his son Robert Curthose to do homage to the new count of Anjou, Geoffrey the Bearded.^[50] This secured William's western border but the border with Brittany was still insecure. In 1064 William invaded Brittany, in a campaign which remains obscure in its details. The effect, however, was to foster instability inside Brittany, forcing the duke, Conan II, to focus on internal problems rather than expansion. When Conan died in 1066, this further secured William's borders in Normandy. William benefited another way from his actions in Brittany, as he had secured the support of a number of Breton nobles, some of whom went on to support the invasion of England in 1066.^[51]

Although Earl Godwin died in 1053, his sons became powerful, with Harold succeeding to his father's earldom and another son, Tostig becoming Earl of Northumbria. Other sons were granted earldoms later: Gyrth as Earl of East Anglia in 1057 and Leofwine as Earl of Kent sometime between 1055 and 1057.^[52] Some sources claim that Harold took part in William's Breton campaign of 1064 and that Harold swore to uphold William's claim to the English throne at the end of the campaign.^[50] However, no English source reports this trip, and it is unclear if it actually occurred. It may have been Norman propaganda designed to discredit Harold, who had emerged as the main contender to succeed King Edward.^[53] Meanwhile, other contenders for the throne had emerged – Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of Æthelred II, returned to England in 1057, and although he died shortly after his return, he brought with him his family, which included two daughters Margaret and Christina and a son, Edgar the Ætheling.^[54]

In 1065, Northumbria revolted against Tostig, and chose Morcar, the younger brother of Edwin, Earl of Mercia, was named by the rebels as earl in place of Tostig. Harold, perhaps to secure the support of Edwin and Morcar in his bid for the throne, supported the rebels, and persuaded King Edward to replace Tostig with Morcar. Tostig went into exile in Flanders, along with his wife, who was the daughter of Count Baldwin of Flanders. Edward was ailing, and died on 5 January 1066. It is unclear what exactly happened at Edward's deathbed. One story, deriving from the Vita Edwardi, claims that Edward was attended by his wife Edith, Harold, Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Robert fitzWimac and that the king named Harold as his successor. The Norman sources do not dispute the fact that Harold was named as the next king, but declare that Harold's oath and Edward's earlier promise of the throne could not be changed on Edward's deathbed. Later English sources stated that Harold had been elected as king by the clergy and magnates of England.^[55]

Invasion of England

Harold's preparations

Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 at Westminster Abbey, although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony. English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York performed the ceremony, but Norman sources state that the coronation was performed by Stigand, who was was considered as a non-canonical archbishop by the papacy.^[56] His claim was not secure, however, and there were four main claimants to the English throne – Harold himself and his exiled brother Tostig, who also seems to have claimed the throne, were the two English claimants.^[57] King Harold Hardrada of Norway also had a claim to the throne. The basis for this claim was that Hardrada was the nephew and heir of King Magnus I who had made a pact with Harthacnut around 1040 that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs, the other would succeed.^[58] The last claimant was William of Normandy, and King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations to repel William's anticipated invasion.^[57]

Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern shore of England in May 1066, landing at the Isle of Wight, using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig appears to have received little local support from Englishmen, and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the River Humber met with no more success, so Tostig retreated to Scotland, where he remained for a while.^[57] Meanwhile, William had, according to the Norman writer William of Jumieges, sent an embassy to King Harold Godwinson reminding Harold of his oath to support William's claim. Whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear. Harold meanwhile assembled an army and a fleet to repel the expected invasion by William. These troops and ships were deployed along the English Channel for most of the summer.^[57]

William's preparations

William of Poitiers describes a council called by the duke, where the writer describes a great debate that took place between William's nobles and supporters over whether to risk the invasion, but although some sort of formal assembly probably was held, it is unlikely that any debate occurred, since Duke William had secured control over his nobles earlier. Most of the assembled nobles would have been anxious to secure the rewards of conquering England.^[59] William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained Pope Alexander II's consent for the invasion, along with a papal banner. The chronicler also claimed that the duke secured the support of Emperor Henry IV and King Sweyn II of Denmark, but as Henry was still a minor and Swein was more likely to support Harold who could then help Swein against the Norwegian king, these claims should be treated with caution. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support prior to the invasion.^[e][60]

Throughout the summer, William assembled an army and an invasion fleet in Normandy. Although William of Jumieges claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3,000 ships is clearly an exaggeration, the fleet was probably large and mostly built from scratch. Although William of Poitiers and William of Jumieges disagree about where the fleet was built – Poitiers stating it was constructed at the mouth of the River Dives while Jumieges stated it was built at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme, both agree that the fleet eventually sailed from St Valery-sur-Somme. The fleet carried an invasion force which included, in addition to troops from William's own territories of Normandy and Maine, large numbers of mercenaries, allies and volunteers from Brittany, north-eastern France and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the force in Normandy until late September. There were likely other reasons for William's delay, however, including intelligence reports from England which would have reported that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.^[60] Harold kept his forces on alert throughout the summer, but with the arrival of the harvest season, he disbanded his army on 8 September.^[61]

Tostig and Hardrada's invasion

Tostig and Hardrada invaded Northumbria in September 1066, and defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the Battle of Fulford. King Harold got word of their invasion and marched north and defeated the invaders at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Both Tostig and Hardrada were killed.^[58] Meanwhile, on 27 September the Norman fleet finally set sail, landing in England at Pevensey Bay (Sussex) on 28 September. William then moved to Hastings, a few miles to the east, where he built a castle for a base of operations. From there, he ravaged the hinterland and waited for Harold's return from the north, refusing to leave behind the sea, which was his line of communication with Normandy.^[61]

Battle of Hastings

Death of Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Hastings, as shown on the Bayeux Tapestry.

Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his forces in the north, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.^[61] It is unclear when Harold learned of William's landing, but likely it was while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London, and was there for about a week before Hastings, so he likely spent about a week on his march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day,^[62] for the approximately 200 miles (320 kilometres) distance.^[63] Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the attempt to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William left the castle with his army and advanced towards the enemy.^[64] Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (9.7 kilometres) from William's castle at Hastings.^[65]

The battle began at about 9am and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources.^[66] Although the numbers on each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few if any archers.^[67] The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge's border, and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked, and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons. However, Norman cavalry then attacked the pursuing troops and killed them. While the Breton's were fleeing, rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed. William rallied his troops, reportedly raising his helmet, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry, to quell rumours of his death. Twice more the Normans feigned flight and drew the English into pursuing them on foot, allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly.^[68] The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold, about which differing stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by Duke William. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head.^[69]

The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, whether through his armour or through marks on his body. The bodies of the English dead, which included some of Harold's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield. Gytha, Harold's mother, had offered the victorious duke the weight of her son's body in gold for custody of the body, but this offer was refused. Harold's body was ordered to be thrown into the sea by William, but whether this took place is unclear. Waltham Abbey, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had secretly been buried there.^[70]

March on London

English coin of William the Conqueror

After his victory, William may have hoped for the surrender of the English, but this did not happen. Instead, some of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar Ætheling as king, but Edgar's supporters were not solidly behind him, partly because he was young – likely only 14 in 1066. After waiting a bit, William then proceeded to secure Dover, parts of Kent, and Canterbury, while also sending a force to capture Winchester, where the royal treasury was. He also secured control of Harold's widow. William then marched to Southwark, across the Thames from London, which he reached in late November. William then led his forces around the south and west of London, burning along his route. He finally crossed the Thames at Wallingford in early December. It was at Wallingford that Archbishop Stigand submitted to William, and when the duke moved on to Berkhamsted soon afterwards, Edgar, Morcar, Edwin and Archbishop Ealdred also submitted to William. William then sent forces into London to construct a castle and then was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.^[71]

English resistance

William remained in England after his coronation, and tried to reconcile the native magnates to his conquest. The remaining earls – Edwin (of Mercia), Morcar (of Northumbria), and Waltheof (of Northampton) were confirmed in their lands and titles. Waltheof was married to William's niece and a marriage between Edwin and one of William's daughters was also proposed. Edgar the Ætheling also appears to have been given lands. Ecclesiastical offices also continued to be held by the same bishops as before the invasion, including the uncanonical Stigand.^[72] Some who had fought against William at Hastings, however, lost their lands; which included the lands of Harold and his brothers.^[73] By March, William was secure enough to return to Normandy, but he took with him Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar, and Waltheof. He left his half-brother Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux in charge of England along with another influential supporter, William fitzOsbern, the son of his former guardian.^[72] Although he put two Normans in overall charge, he retained many of the native English sheriffs.^[73] Once in Normandy, the king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp.^[72]

While William was in Normandy, a former ally, Eustace, the Count of Boulogne, invaded at Dover but was repulsed. English resistance had also begun, with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter, where Gytha, Harold's mother, was a focus of resistance. William returned to England in December 1067, and marched on Exeter, besieged it, and after 18 days, took the town and built a castle to secure control. Harold's sons, however, were raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland. These forces landed near Bristol, but were defeated by Eadnoth. By Easter, William was at Winchester and he was joined shortly by his wife Matilda, who was crowned in May 1068.^[74]

In 1068 Edwin and Morcar revolted, supported by Gospatric. The chronicler Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin's reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of William's daughters had not taken place, but other reasons probably included the increasing power of William fitzOsbern in Herefordshire, which impacted Edwin's power within his own earldom. The king marched through Edwin's lands and built a castle at Warwick. This caused Edwin and Morcar to submit, but William continued on to York, building castles at York and Nottingham before returning south. On his southbound journey, the king began construction of castles at Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cambridge. William placed supporters in charge of these new fortifications – William Peverel at Nottingham, Robert fitzRichard at York, and Henry de Beaumont at Warwick. Then the king returned to Normandy late in 1068.^[74]

Early in 1069, Edgar the Ætheling rose in revolt, and attacked York. Although William returned to York and built another castle, Edgar remained free and in the autumn joined up with King Swein of Denmark. The Danish king had brought a large fleet to England and attacked not only York, but Exeter and Shrewsbury. York was captured by the combined forces of Edgar and Swein. Edgar was proclaimed king by his supporters, but William responded swiftly, ignoring a continental revolt in Maine. William symbolically wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069, and then proceeded to buy off the Danes. Further, he marched to the River Tees, ravaging the countryside as he went. Edgar, having lost much of his support, fled to Scotland,^[75] where King Malcolm III was husband of Edgar's sister Margaret.^[76] Waltheof, who had joined the revolt, submitted, along with Gospatric, and both were allowed to retain their lands. William was not finished, however, and marched over the Pennines during the winter and defeated the remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before building castles at Chester and Stafford. This campaign, which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through, is usually known as the "Harrying of the North", and was over by April 1070, when William wore his crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester.^[75]

Church affairs

While at Winchester, William met with three papal legates – John Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion, who had been sent by Pope Alexander. It was the legates who ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court. Then the legates and the king proceeded to hold a series of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganizing the English church. Stigand and his brother, Æthelmær, the Bishop of Elmham. Some of the native abbots were also deposed, both at the council held near Easter and at a further one near Whitsun. The Whitsun council saw the appointment of Lanfranc as the new Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas of Bayeux, as the new Archbishop of York, to replace Ealdred, who had died in September 1069. Norman clergy were appointed to replace the deposed bishops and abbots, and at the end of the process, only two native English bishops remained in office, along with a number of continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor.^[77]

Troubles in England and the Continent

Although Swein had promised to leave England, he returned in the spring of 1070, raiding along the Humber and East Anglia toward the Isle of Ely, where he joined up with Hereward the Wake, a local thegn. Hereward's forces attacked Peterborough Abbey and captured and looted it. But, William was able to secure the departure of Swein, who left England in 1070 with his fleet.^[78] This enabled William to return to the continent to deal with troubles in Maine, where the town of Le Mans had revolted in 1069. Another concern was the death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders, who died in July 1070. This left Flanders in the grip of a succession crisis, with widow of Baldwin VI ruling for her two young sons, but her rule was contested by Robert, Baldwin's brother. The widow proposed marriage to William fitzOsbern, who was in Normandy, and fitzOsbern accepted but was killed in February 1071 at the Battle of Cassel which resulted in Robert becoming count. Robert was opposed to King William's power on the continent, so the Battle of Cassel not only lost the king an important supporter, but also upset the continental balance of power in northern France.^[79]

In 1071, William defeated the last rebellion of the north. Earl Edwin was betrayed by his own men and killed, while William built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Hereward escaped, but Morcar was captured, deprived of his earldom and imprisoned. In 1072, William invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north of England. William and Malcolm agreed to a peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy and Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace. Another possible requirement for the peace was the expulsion of Edgar the Ætheling from Malcolm's court.^[80] William then turned his attentions to the continent, returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. With a swift campaign, William seized Le Mans from Fulk's forces, and had finished his campaign by 30 March 1073. This made William's power more secure in northern France, but the new count of Flanders accepted Edgar the Ætheling into his court, and married his half-sister to the king of France, Philip I, who was opposed to Norman power.^[81]

In 1075, during William's absence, the Revolt of the Earls was confronted successfully by Odo. The sole remaining Anglo-Saxon earl, Waltheof, was again implicated in this uprising, leading to his execution the following year. In 1080, William dispatched his half brothers Odo and Robert to storm Northumbria and Scotland, respectively. Eventually, the Pope protested that the Normans were mistreating the English people. Before quelling the rebellions, William had conciliated with the English church; however, he persecuted it ferociously afterwards.

Reign in England

Normans

William the Conqueror invades England
William I Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy Richard, Duke of Bernay William II of England Adela, Countess of Blois Henry I of England
William II
Henry I Empress Matilda William Adelin Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester
Stephen Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne William I, Count of Boulogne Marie I, Countess of Boulogne
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
v d e

Events

William spent much of his time (11 years, since 1072) in Normandy, ruling the islands through his writs. Nominally still a vassal state, owing its entire loyalty to the French king, Normandy arose suddenly as a powerful region, alarming the other French dukes who reacted by persistently attacking the duchy. William became focused on conquering Brittany, and the French King Philip I admonished him. A treaty was concluded after his aborted invasion of Brittany in 1076, and William betrothed his daughter Constance to the son of the Breton Duke Hoel, the future Alan IV of Brittany. The wedding occurred only in 1086, after Alan's accession to the duchy, and Constance died childless a few years later.

William's eldest son Robert Curthose, enraged by a prank of his brothers William and Henry, who had doused him with filthy water, undertook what became a large scale rebellion against his father's rule. Only with King Philip's additional military support was William able to confront Robert, who was then based in Flanders. During the battle of 1079, William was unhorsed and wounded by Robert, who lowered his sword only after recognising him. The embarrassed William returned to Rouen, abandoning the expedition. In 1081, Matilda reconciled both, and William restored Robert's inheritance.

Odo caused trouble for William, too, and was imprisoned in 1082, losing his English estate and all his royal functions, but retaining his religious duties. In 1083, Matilda died, and William became more tyrannical over his realm.

Reforms

The signatures of William I and Matilda are the first two large crosses on the Accord of Winchester from 1072.

William initiated many major changes. He increased the function of the traditional English shires (autonomous administrative regions), which he brought under central control; he decreased the power of the earls by restricting them to one shire apiece. All administrative functions of his government remained fixed at specific English towns, except the court itself; they would progressively strengthen, and the English institutions became amongst the most sophisticated in Europe. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominions and to improve taxation, William commissioned all his counsellors for the compilation of the Domesday Book, which was published in 1086. The book was a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census.

William also ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes, among them the Tower of London's foundation (the White Tower), to be built throughout England. These ensured effectively that the many rebellions by the English people or his own followers did not succeed.

His conquest also led to French (especially, but not only, the Norman French) replacing English as the language of the ruling classes for nearly 300 years.^[f][82] Whereas in 1066 fewer than 30% of property owners had non-English given names, by 1207 this had risen to more than 80%, with French names such as William, Robert and Richard most common. Furthermore, the original Anglo-Saxon culture of England became mingled with the Norman one; thus the Anglo-Norman culture came into being.

William I built the central White Tower in the Tower of London. The chapel was built in the Norman style using Caen stone imported from France.

William is said to have eliminated the native aristocracy in as little as four years. Systematically, he despoiled those English aristocrats who either opposed the Normans or died without issue. Thus, most English estates and titles of nobility were handed to the Norman noblemen. Many English aristocrats fled to Flanders and Scotland; others may have been sold into slavery overseas. Some escaped to join the Byzantine Empire's Varangian Guard, and went on to fight the Normans in Sicily. Although William initially allowed English lords to keep their lands if they offered submission, by 1070, the indigenous nobility had ceased to be an integral part of the English landscape, and by 1086, it maintained control of just 8% of its original land-holdings. More than 4,000 English lords had lost their lands and been replaced, with only two English lords of any significance surviving.^[83] However, to the new Norman noblemen, William handed the English parcels of land piecemeal, dispersing these widely, ensuring nobody would try conspiring against him without jeopardising their own estates within the still unstable post-invasion England. Effectively, this strengthened William's political stand as a monarch.

The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land (36 parishes), turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting. Modern historians, however, have come to the conclusion that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated. Most of the lands of the New Forest are poor agricultural lands, and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that the New Forest was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest.^[84]

Death, burial, and succession

Coin of William I of England.

In 1087 in France, William burned Mantes (30 mi [50 km] west of Paris), besieging the town. However, he fell off his horse, suffering fatal abdominal injuries from the saddle pommel. On his deathbed, William divided his lands between his sons, which led to the Rebellion of 1088. Despite William's reluctance, his combative elder son Robert received the Duchy of Normandy. William Rufus (his third son) was the next English king, and the youngest son Henry received 5,000 silver pounds, which was to allow him to purchase a lordship.^[85] While on his deathbed, William pardoned many of his political adversaries, including Odo.

William died at age 59 at the Convent of St Gervais in Rouen, the chief city of Normandy, on 9 September 1087. William was buried in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, which he had erected, in Caen, Normandy. It is said that Herluin, his stepfather, loyally bore his body to his grave.^[86]

The original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry had to pay on the spot. In a most unregal postmortem, it was found that William's corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus as his body had bloated due to the warm weather and length of time that had passed since his death. A group of bishops applied pressure on the king's abdomen to force the body downward but the abdominal wall burst and drenched the king's coffin, releasing putrefaction gases into the church.^[87][88]

William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription; the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen, and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur, some skin particles and bone dust remain in the tomb.

Legacy

William's conquest of England decisively changed English history in terms of customs culture, politics, economics and, most dramatically, the language itself.^[89] As Duke of Normandy and King of England, William the Conqueror, divided his realm among his sons, but the lands were reunited under his son Henry, and his descendants acquired other territories through marriage or conquest and, at their height, these possessions would be known as the Angevin Empire.

They included many lands in France, such as Normandy and Aquitaine, but the question of jurisdiction over these territories would be the cause of much conflict and bitter rivalry between England and France, which took up much of the Middle Ages.

An example of William's legacy even in modern times can be seen on the Bayeux Memorial, a monument erected by Britain in the Normandy town of Bayeux to those killed in the Battle of Normandy during World War II. A Latin inscription on the memorial reads NOS A GULIELMO VICTI VICTORIS PATRIAM LIBERAVIMUS – freely translated, this reads "We, once conquered by William, have now set free the Conqueror's native land".

The numbering scheme of the English (or British) Crown regards William as the founder of the state of England. This explains, among other things, why King Edward I was "the First" even though he ruled long after the Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor.

Physical appearance

No authentic portrait of William has been found. Nonetheless, he was depicted as a man of fair stature with remarkably strong arms, "with which he could shoot a bow at full gallop". William showed a magnificent appearance, possessing a fierce countenance. He enjoyed excellent health until old age; nevertheless his noticeable corpulence in later life eventually increased so much that French King Philip I commented that William looked like a pregnant woman. Examination of his femur, the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) tall, which was around 2 inches (5.1 cm) taller than the average for the 11th century. He is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry as being clean-shaven, as opposed to Harold and the English lords, who wore moustaches.

Ancestors

Descendants

Family tree

Willam fathered numerous children; several daughters were betrothed to notable figures of that time. There is no evidence that he had any illegitimate children.

1. Robert Curthose (1054–1134), Duke of Normandy, married Sybil of Conversano, daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano.
2. Richard (c. 1055 – c. 1081), Duke of Bernay, killed by a stag in New Forest.
3. Adeliza (or Alice) (c. 1055 – c. 1065), reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England.
4. Cecilia (or Cecily) (c. 1056–1126), Abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen.
5. William "Rufus" (c. 1056–1100), King of England, killed by an arrow in New Forest.
6. Agatha (c. 1064–1079), betrothed to Alfonso VI of Castile.
7. Constance (c. 1066–1090), married Alan IV Fergent, Duke of Brittany; poisoned, possibly by her own servants.
8. Adela (c. 1067–1137), married Stephen, Count of Blois.
9. Henry "Beauclerc" (1068–1135), King of England, married Edith of Scotland, daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland and Saint Margaret of Scotland. His second wife was Adeliza of Leuven.

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

• Rex, Peter. (2011) "William the Conqueror: The Bastard of Normandy" Amberley Publishing, hardback ISBN 978-1-84868-332-7 paperback ISBN 978-1-4456-0698-9
• Howarth, David (1977) 1066 The Year of the Conquest, London : Collins, ISBN 0-00-211845-9

External links

Normandy portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: William the Conqueror

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: William I of England

v d e Dukes of Normandy House of Normandy 911–1135 Rollo · William I · Richard I · Richard II · Richard III · Robert I · William II · Robert II · Henry I · William III House of Blois 1135–1144 Stephen House of Plantagenet 1144–1259 Geoffrey · Henry II · Henry the Young · Richard IV · John · Henry III