William I of England

William the Conqueror
William depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry
King of England
Reign	25 December 1066 – 9 September 1087
Coronation	25 December 1066
Predecessor	Edgar the Ætheling (uncrowned) (otherwise) Harold II
Successor	William II
Duke of Normandy
Reign	3 July 1035 – 9 September 1087
Predecessor	Robert the Magnificent
Successor	Robert Curthose
Spouse	Matilda of Flanders
Detail Issue
Robert Curthose Richard of Normandy William II of England Cecilia of Normandy Adeliza Matilda Agatha of Normandy (existence doubtful) Constance of Normandy Adela, Countess of Blois Henry I of England
House	Norman dynasty
Father	Robert I, Duke of Normandy
Mother	Herleva of Falaise
Born	c. 1028[1] Château de Falaise, Falaise, Normandy, France
Died	9 September 1087(1087-09-09) (aged 58–59) Priory of St Gervase, Rouen, France
Burial	Saint-Étienne de Caen, France

William I (circa 1028^[1] – 9 September 1087), also known as William the Conqueror or William the Bastard,^[2][a] was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death. Descended from Viking raiders, he had been Duke of Normandy since 1035 under the name of William II. He faced a long struggle to establish his power when he became duke at the age of seven or eight, but by 1060 his hold over Normandy was secure.

William was the son of the unmarried Duke Robert the Magnificent of Normandy by his mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, as did the anarchy that plagued the first years of his rule. During his childhood and adolescence, the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy, a process that was not complete until about 1060. His marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to appoint his own choices as bishops and abbots in the Norman church. His consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine.

In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by his childless relative Edward the Confessor. There were other potential claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson, who was named the next king by Edward on the latter's deathbed in January 1066. William argued that Edward had earlier promised the throne to him, and that Harold had sworn to support William's claim. After building a large fleet, William invaded England in September 1066 and decisively defeated and killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After some further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066, in London. He made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. A number of rebellions followed, but William was able to put them down, and by 1075 his hold on England was mostly secure. Thus William was able to spend the majority of the rest of his reign on the continent.

William's final years reign were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of Domesday Book, a survey listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France, and was buried in Caen. His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, instead continuing to administer each part separately. William's lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert, and his second surviving son, William, received England.

Background

Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century. Permanent settlement by them occurred sometime before 911, when an agreement between Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France was reached, surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the later duchy of Normandy.^[3] In the later part of the 10th century Vikings resumed raiding the shores of England, and may have used Normandy as a base of operations; if they did, that would have contributed to the worsening of relations between England and Normandy.^[4] In an effort to improve matters, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married as his second wife Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II.^[5]

Danish raids continued and Æthelred sought help from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein I of Denmark drove Æthelred and his family from England. Swein's death in 1014 allowed Æthelred to return to England, but Swein's son Cnut contested Æthelred's return. Æthelred himself died unexpectedly in 1016 and Cnut became king of England. Æthelred and Emma's two sons, Edward and Alfred then went into exile in Normandy while their mother, Emma, became Cnut's second wife.^[6]

After Cnut's death in 1035 he was succeeded in England by Harold Harefoot, his son by his first wife, while Harthacnut, his son by Emma, became king in Denmark. But England remained unstable, and Alfred returned to England in 1036 to visit his mother, and perhaps challenge Harold as king. One story implicates Earl Godwin of Wessex in Alfred's subsequent death, but others blame Harold. Emma went into exile in Flanders until Harthacnut became king following Harold's death in 1040, and summoned his mother and his half-brother Edward to England. When Harthacnut died in June 1042 Edward was proclaimed king before Harthacnut's burial.^[7][b]

Early life

Château de Falaise in Falaise, Calvados, France, was William's birthplace.

William was born in 1027 or 1028 in Falaise, Normandy, France, most likely in the autumn of the later year.^[1][8][c] William was the only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, son of Duke Richard II.^[d] His mother, Herleva, was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise, who may have been a tanner or embalmer.^[9] She was possibly a member of the ducal household, but did not marry Robert.^[2] Instead, she later married Herluin de Conteville, with whom she had two sons – Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain – and a daughter whose name is unknown.^[e] One of Herleva's brothers, Walter, became a supporter and protector of William during his minority.^[9][f] Robert also had a daughter, Adelaide of Normandy, by another mistress.^[12]

Robert, William's father, became Duke of Normandy on 6 August 1027, in succession to his elder brother Richard III, who had only succeeded to the title the previous year.^[1] Robert and his brother had been at odds over the succession, and Richard's death was very sudden. Robert was accused by some writers of killing his brother, a possible but unprovable charge.^[13] Conditions in Normandy were unsettled, as noble families despoiled the Church and Alan III of Brittany waged war against the duchy, possibly in an attempt to take control. By 1031 Robert had gathered considerable support from noblemen, many of whom became prominent in William's life. They included Robert's uncle, Robert the Archbishop of Rouen, who had originally opposed the duke. Other supporters of Robert were Osbern, a nephew of Gunnor the wife of Duke Richard I, and Count Gilbert of Brionne, a grandson of Richard I.^[14] Robert also supported the English princes Edward and Alfred, who were still in exile in northern France.^[2]

There are indications that Robert may have been briefly betrothed to a daughter of King Cnut of Denmark and England, but no marriage took place. If he had had a legitimate son, it is unclear if William would have been supplanted in the ducal succession. Earlier dukes had been illegitimate and William's association with his father on ducal charters appears to indicate that William was considered Robert's most probable heir.^[2] In 1034 Duke Robert decided to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Although a number of his supporters tried to dissuade him from undertaking the journey, Robert convened a council in January 1035 and had the assembled Norman magnates swear fealty to William as his heir.^[2][15] Robert then left for Jerusalem and died in early July at Nicea, on his way back to Normandy.^[15]

Duke of Normandy

Challenges

William faced a number of challenges on becoming the new duke, including his illegitimate birth and his young age; sources state that he was either seven or eight years old at the time.^[16][17][g] William enjoyed the support of his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, as well as the king of France, Henry I, and this enabled the young duke to succeed to his father's duchy.^[20] The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke's guardians were attempting to continue the policies of his father.^[2] However, Archbishop Robert's death in March 1037 removed one of William's main supports, and conditions in Normandy quickly descended into chaos.^[20]

The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047,^[21] and control of the young duke was one of the prime concerns of those contending for power. At first, Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke, but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040, Gilbert of Brionne took control of William. Gilbert was killed within months, and another guardian, Turchetil, was also killed around the time of Gilbert's death.^[22] Another guardian, Osbern, was killed in the early 1040s in William's sleeping chamber while the duke slept. It was said that Walter, William's maternal uncle, was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants,^[23] although this story may be an embellishment by Orderic Vitalis. The historian Eleanor Searle speculates that William was raised with the three cousins who later became important in his career – William fitzOsbern, Roger de Beaumont, and Roger of Montgomery.^[24] While many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William's minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William.^[25]

Column at the site of the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes

King Henry continued to support the young duke,^[26] but in late 1046 forces opposed to William came together in a co-ordinated rebellion centred in lower Normandy, led by Guy of Burgundy with support from Nigel, Viscount of the Cotentin, and Rannulf, Viscount of the Bessin. According to stories that may have legendary elements, an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes, but he escaped under cover of darkness and sought out King Henry for assistance.^[27] In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were victorious at the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes near Caen, although few details of the actual fighting are recorded.^[28] William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William's efforts, but earlier accounts claim that King Henry's men and leadership were also important.^[2] The battle marked William's assumption of authority in Normandy, and he marked it by promulgating the Truce of God throughout the duchy shortly after the battle. The Truce was an effort to restrict warfare and violence, and William's proclamation restricted the days of the week on which forces were supposed to fight.^[29] Although the battle marked a turning point in William's control of the duchy, it was not the end of his struggles to gain the upper hand over the nobility. The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare, and lesser crises continued until 1060.^[30]

Consolidation of power

William's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at Brionne, which William besieged. After a long effort, the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050.^[31] Another problem was the growing power of the Count of Anjou, Geoffrey Martel.^[32] William joined with King Henry in a campaign against Anjou, the last known cooperation between the two. Although the campaign captured an Angevin fortress, little else was accomplished.^[33] Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of Maine, especially after the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051. Central to the control of Maine were the holdings of the family of Bellême, who held Bellême on the border of Maine and Normandy, as well as the fortresses at Alençon and Domfort. Bellême's overlord was the king of France, but Domfort was under the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel and Duke William was Alençon's overlord. The Bellême family, whose lands were quite strategically placed between their three different overlords, were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves.^[32]

On the death of Hugh of Maine, Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine, in a move contested by William and King Henry; eventually they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county, and in the process, William was able to secure the Bellême family strongholds at Alençon and Domfort for himself. He was thus able to assert his overlordship over the Bellême family and compel them to act consistently in Norman interests.^[34] But in 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William at the same time as some Norman nobles began to contest William's increasing power. Henry's volte-face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy, which was now threatened by William's growing mastery of his duchy.^[35] William was engaged in military actions against his own nobles throughout 1053,^[36] as well as the new Archbishop of Rouen, Mauger.^[37] In February 1054 the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy. The main thrust was led by Henry and came through the county of Évreux while the other wing, under the French king's brother Odo, invaded eastern Normandy.^[38]

William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two groups. The first, which he led, faced Henry. The second, which included a number of men who became William's firm supporters, such as Robert, Count of Eu, Walter Giffard, Roger of Mortemer, and William de Warenne, faced the other invading force. This second force defeated the invaders at the Battle of Mortemer. In addition to ending both invasions, the battle allowed the duke's ecclesiastical supporters to depose Mauger from the archbishopric of Rouen. Mortemer thus marked another turning point in William's growing control of the duchy,^[39] although his conflict with the French king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060.^[40] Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057, but were defeated by William at the Battle of Varaville. This was the last invasion of Normandy during William's lifetime,^[41] and the deaths of the count and the king in 1060 cemented the shift in the balance of power towards William.^[41]

The signatures of William I and Matilda are the first two large crosses on the Accord of Winchester from 1072.

One factor that helped William was his marriage to Matilda of Flanders, the daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. The marriage was arranged in 1049, but Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council of Rheims in October 1049.^[h] Despite this, the marriage went ahead and was conducted some time during the early 1050s,^[43][i] possibly without papal sanction. According to a late source, papal sanction of the already performed marriage was not secured until 1059, but the source for this is not considered generally reliable. Further corroboration of a grant of papal approval earlier than 1059 is the fact that papal-Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good and that Norman clergy were able to visit Rome in 1050 without incident.^[44] Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen – one by William and one by Matilda.^[45][j] The marriage itself was important in bolstering William's power, as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories, with ties to the French royal house as well as to the German emperors.^[44] Contemporary writers considered the marriage to be a success and it produced four sons and five or six daughters over time.^[47]

Physical appearance and character

No authentic portrait of William has been found; the contemporary depictions of him on the Bayeux Tapestry and on his seals and coins are stylised portraits designed to assert his authority.^[48] But there are some written descriptions of his appearance, describing him as burly and robust with a guttural voice. He enjoyed excellent health until old age, although he became quite fat in later life.^[49] He was strong enough to draw bows that others were unable to pull and had great stamina.^[48] Geoffrey Martel described him as without equal as a fighter and as a horseman.^[50] Examination of William's femur, the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) in height, quite tall for the time.^[48]

There are records of two tutors for the young duke during the late 1030s and early 1040s, but the extent of William's literary education is unclear. He was not known as a patron of authors, and there is little evidence that he sponsored scholarship or other intellectual activities.^[2] Orderic Vitalis records that late in William's life the king tried to learn to read English, but was unable to devote sufficient time to the effort and quickly gave up.^[51] William's main hobby appears to have been hunting. His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate, and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her – unusual in a medieval monarch. Medieval writers criticised William for his greed and cruelty, but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries.^[2]

Norman administration

Norman government under William was similar to the government that had existed under earlier dukes. This was a fairly simple administrative system, which was built around the ducal household.^[52] The household consisted of a group of officers such as stewards, butlers, and marshalls.^[53] The duke travelled constantly around the duchy, confirming charters and collecting revenues.^[54] Most of the income came from the ducal lands as well as tolls, and a few taxes. This income was collected by the chamber, one of the household departments.^[53]

William cultivated close relations with the church in his duchy. He took part in church councils, and made a number of appointments to the Norman episcopate, including the appointment of Maurilius as Archbishop of Rouen.^[55] Another important appointment was that of William's half-brother Odo as Bishop of Bayeux in either 1049 or 1050.^[2] He also relied on a number of the clergy for advice, including Lanfranc, a non-Norman who rose to become one of William's prominent ecclesiastical advisors in the late 1040s and remained so throughout the 1050s and 1060s. Besides the two monasteries founded by William and Matilda in Caen to appease the papacy, William also gave generously to the church.^[55] From 1035 to 1066, the Norman aristocracy founded at least 20 new monastic houses, including William's two monasteries in Caen, a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy.^[56]

English and continental concerns

In 1051 the childless King Edward of England^[57] appears to have chosen William as his successor to the English throne. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in the "D" version, goes so far as to state that William visited England in the later part of 1051, perhaps to secure confirmation of the succession,^[58] or perhaps William was attempting to secure aid for his troubles in Normandy.^[59] William was descended from Edward's uncle, Richard II, Duke of Normandy.^[57] The trip is unlikely given William's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time. Whatever Edward's wishes, it was likely that any claim by William would be opposed by Godwin, the Earl of Wessex and his family, who were the most powerful family in England.^[58] Edward had married Edith, Godwin's daughter, in 1043, and Godwin appears to have been one of the main supporters of Edward's claim to the throne.^[60] But by 1050, relations between the king and the earl had soured, which in 1051 broke into a crisis that led to Godwin and his family's exile from England. It was during this exile that Edward offered the throne to William.^[61] Godwin, however, returned from exile in 1052 with armed forces and a settlement was reached between the king and the earl, with the earl and his family being restored to their lands and the replacement of Robert of Jumièges, a Norman whom Edward had named Archbishop of Canterbury, with Stigand, the Bishop of Winchester.^[62] No English source mentions a supposed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the succession, and the two Norman sources that mention it, William of Jumièges and William of Poitiers, are not precise in their chronology of when this visit took place.^[59]

Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing Harold swearing an oath of fealty to William

Count Herbert II of Maine died in 1062, and William, who had betrothed his eldest son Robert to the sister of Herbert, claimed the county through his son. This was resisted by the local nobles, but William invaded the county and by 1064 had secured control of the area.^[63] William appointed a Norman to the bishopric of Le Mans in 1065 as well as allowing his son Robert Curthose to do homage to the new Count of Anjou, Geoffrey the Bearded.^[64] This secured William's western border, but his border with Brittany remained insecure. In 1064 William invaded Brittany in a campaign that remains obscure in its details. Its effect though was to destabilise Brittany, forcing the duke, Conan II, to focus on internal problems rather than expansion. Conan's death in 1066 further secured William's borders in Normandy. William benefited in another way from his campaign in Brittany by securing the support of a number of Breton nobles, some of whom went on to support the invasion of England in 1066.^[65]

In England, Earl Godwin died in 1053 and his sons became powerful, with Harold succeeding to his father's earldom and another son, Tostig, becoming Earl of Northumbria. Other sons were granted earldoms later: Gyrth as Earl of East Anglia in 1057 and Leofwine as Earl of Kent some time between 1055 and 1057.^[66] Some sources claim that Harold took part in William's Breton campaign of 1064 and that Harold swore to uphold William's claim to the English throne at the end of the campaign,^[64] but no English source reports this trip, and it is unclear if it actually occurred. It may have been Norman propaganda designed to discredit Harold, who had emerged as the main contender to succeed King Edward.^[67] Meanwhile another contender for the throne had emerged – Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of Æthelred II, returned to England in 1057, and although he died shortly after his return, he brought with him his family, which included two daughters, Margaret and Christina, and a son, Edgar the Ætheling.^[68][k]

In 1065 Northumbria revolted against Tostig, and the rebels chose Morcar, the younger brother of Edwin, Earl of Mercia, as earl in place of Tostig. Harold, perhaps to secure the support of Edwin and Morcar in his bid for the throne, supported the rebels, and persuaded King Edward to replace Tostig with Morcar. Tostig went into exile in Flanders, along with his wife Judith, who was the daughter of Count Baldwin IV of Flanders. Edward was ailing, and died on 5 January 1066. It is unclear what exactly happened at Edward's deathbed. One story, deriving from the Vita Edwardi, claims that Edward was attended by his wife Edith, Harold, Archbishop Stigand, and Robert FitzWimarc, and that the king named Harold as his successor. The Norman sources do not dispute the fact that Harold was named as the next king, but declare that Harold's oath and Edward's earlier promise of the throne could not be changed on Edward's deathbed. Later English sources stated that Harold had been elected as king by the clergy and magnates of England.^[70]

Invasion of England

Harold's preparations

Silver penny of Harold

Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 at Westminster Abbey, although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony. English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York performed the ceremony, but Norman sources state that the coronation was performed by Stigand, who was considered a non-canonical archbishop by the papacy.^[71] But Harold's claim was not entirely secure; there were other claimants to the English throne, perhaps including his exiled brother Tostig.^[72][l] King Harold Hardrada of Norway also had a claim to the throne based on his being the uncle and heir of King Magnus I, who had made a pact with Harthacnut in about 1040 that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs, the other would succeed.^[76] The last claimant was William of Normandy, and King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations to repel William's anticipated invasion.^[72]

Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern shore of England in May 1066, landing at the Isle of Wight, using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig appears to have received little local support, and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the River Humber met with no more success, so Tostig retreated to Scotland, where he remained for a time.^[72] According to the Norman writer William of Jumieges, William had meanwhile sent an embassy to King Harold Godwinson, reminding Harold of his oath to support William's claim, although whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear. Harold assembled an army and a fleet to repel William's anticipated invasion force; troops and ships were deployed along the English Channel for most of the summer.^[72]

William's preparations

William of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke William, in which the writer gives an account of a great debate that took place between William's nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England. Although some sort of formal assembly probably was held, it is unlikely that any debate took place, as the duke had established control over his nobles earlier, and most of the assembled nobles would have been anxious to secure their share of the rewards from conquering England.^[77] William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained Pope Alexander II's consent for the invasion, along with a papal banner. The chronicler also claimed that the duke secured the support of Emperor Henry IV and King Sweyn II of Denmark, but as Henry was still a minor and Sweyn was more likely to support Harold who could then help Sweyn against the Norwegian king, these claims should be treated with caution. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support prior to the invasion.^[m][78] Events after the invasion, which included the penance William performed and statements by later popes, do lend circumstantial support to the claim of papal approval. William also put the government of Normandy into the hands of his wife for the duration of the invasion.^[2]

Throughout the summer, William assembled an army and an invasion fleet in Normandy. Although William of Jumieges's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3,000 ships is clearly an exaggeration, it was probably large and mostly built from scratch. Although William of Poitiers and William of Jumieges disagree about where the fleet was built – Poitiers states it was constructed at the mouth of the River Dives while Jumieges states it was built at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme – both agree that it eventually sailed from Valery-sur-Somme. The fleet carried an invasion force that included, in addition to troops from William's own territories of Normandy and Maine, large numbers of mercenaries, allies and volunteers from Brittany, northeastern France and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William's delay, however, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.^[78] Harold kept his forces on alert throughout the summer, but with the arrival of the harvest season he disbanded his army on 8 September.^[79]

Tostig and Hardrada's invasion

Modern day site of the Battle of Stamford Bridge

Harold's brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada invaded Northumbria in September 1066, and defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the Battle of Fulford. King Harold received word of their invasion and marched north, defeating the invaders at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Both Tostig and Hardrada were killed at Stamford.^[76] Meanwhile, on 27 September the Norman fleet finally set sail, landing in England at Pevensey Bay the following day. William then moved to Hastings, a few miles to the east, where he built a castle as a base of operations. From there, he ravaged the interior and waited for Harold's return from the north, refusing to venture far from the seacoast, which was his line of communication with Normandy.^[79]

Battle of Hastings

Harold, after defeating Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his forces there, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.^[79] It is unclear when Harold learned of William's landing, but it was probably while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London, and was there for about a week before Hastings, so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day,^[80] for the approximately 200 miles (320 kilometres) distance.^[81] Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy.^[82] Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (9.7 kilometres) from William's castle at Hastings.^[83]

Death of Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Hastings, as shown on the Bayeux Tapestry, although whether this is an accurate depiction is unclear

The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources.^[84] Although the numbers on each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few if any archers.^[85] The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge, and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked and fled, and a number of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry. During the Bretons' flight rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William succeeded in rallying his troops. Two further Norman retreats were feigned, to once again draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry.^[86] The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was Harold's death, about which differing stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head.^[87]

Harold's body was identified the day after the battle, either through his armour or marks on his body. The bodies of the English dead, which included some of Harold's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield. Gytha, Harold's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son's body in gold for its custody, but her offer was refused. William ordered that Harold's body was to be thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. Waltham Abbey, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly.^[88]

March on London

William may have hoped that the English would surrender following his victory, but they did not. Instead some of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar the Ætheling as king, but their support for Edgar was only lukewarm. After waiting a short while, William then secured Dover, parts of Kent, and Canterbury, while also sending a force to capture Winchester, where the royal treasury was.^[89] These captures secured William's rear areas and also his line of retreat to Normandy, if that was needed.^[2] William then marched to Southwark, across the Thames from London, which he reached in late November. William then led his forces around the south and west of London, burning along the way. He finally crossed the Thames at Wallingford in early December. It was at Wallingford that Archbishop Stigand submitted to William, and when the duke moved on to Berkhamsted soon afterwards, Edgar the Ætheling, Morcar, Edwin and Archbishop Ealdred also submitted. William then sent forces into London to construct a castle and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.^[89]

Consolidation

Normans

William the Conqueror invades England
William I Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy Richard, Duke of Bernay William II Adela, Countess of Blois Henry I
William II
Henry I Empress Matilda William Adelin Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester
Stephen Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne William I, Count of Boulogne Marie I, Countess of Boulogne
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
v t e

First actions

William remained in England after his coronation, and tried to reconcile the native magnates. The remaining earls – Edwin (of Mercia), Morcar (of Northumbria), and Waltheof (of Northampton) were confirmed in their lands and titles. Waltheof was married to William's niece, and a marriage between Edwin and one of William's daughters was proposed. Edgar the Ætheling also appears to have been given lands. Ecclesiastical offices continued to be held by the same bishops as before the invasion, including the uncanonical Stigand.^[90] But the families of Harold and his brothers did lose their lands, as did some others who had fought against William at Hastings.^[91] By March, William was secure enough to return to Normandy, but he took with him Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar, and Waltheof. He left his half-brother Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux, in charge of England along with another influential supporter, William fitzOsbern, the son of his former guardian.^[90] Both men were also named to earldoms – fitzOsbern to Hereford (or Wessex) and Odo to Kent.^[2] Although he put two Normans in overall charge, he retained many of the native English sheriffs.^[91] Once in Normandy the new English king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp,^[90] and then attended the consecration of new churches at two Norman monasteries.^[2]

While William was in Normandy, a former ally, Eustace, the Count of Boulogne, invaded at Dover but was repulsed. English resistance had also begun, with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter, where Harold's mother Gytha was a focus of resistance.^[92] FitzOsbern and Odo found it difficult to control the native population and undertook a programme of castle building to maintain their hold on the kingdom.^[2] William returned to England in December 1067 and marched on Exeter, which he besieged. The town held out for 18 days, and after it fell to William he built a castle to secure his control. Harold's sons were meanwhile raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland. Their forces landed near Bristol, but were defeated by Eadnoth. By Easter, William was at Winchester, where he was soon joined by his wife Matilda, who was crowned in May 1068.^[92]

English resistance

The remains of the second motte-and-bailey castle built by William in York

In 1068 Edwin and Morcar revolted, supported by Gospatric. The chronicler Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin's reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of William's daughters had not taken place, but other reasons probably included the increasing power of William fitzOsbern in Herefordshire, which impacted Edwin's power within his own earldom. The king marched through Edwin's lands and built a castle at Warwick. This caused Edwin and Morcar to submit, but William continued on to York, building castles at York and Nottingham before returning south. On his southbound journey, the king began construction of castles at Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cambridge. William placed supporters in charge of these new fortifications – among them William Peverel at Nottingham and Henry de Beaumont at Warwick. Then the king returned to Normandy late in 1068.^[92]

Early in 1069, Edgar the Ætheling rose in revolt, and attacked York. Although William returned to York and built another castle, Edgar remained free and in the autumn joined up with King Sweyn of Denmark. The Danish king had brought a large fleet to England and attacked not only York, but Exeter and Shrewsbury. York was captured by the combined forces of Edgar and Sweyn. Edgar was proclaimed king by his supporters, but William responded swiftly, ignoring a continental revolt in Maine. William symbolically wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069, and then proceeded to buy off the Danes. Further, he marched to the River Tees, ravaging the countryside as he went. Edgar, having lost much of his support, fled to Scotland,^[93] where King Malcolm III was married to Edgar's sister Margaret.^[94] Waltheof, who had joined the revolt, submitted, along with Gospatric, and both were allowed to retain their lands. But William was not finished, and marched over the Pennines during the winter and defeated the remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before building castles at Chester and Stafford. This campaign, which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through, is usually known as the "Harrying of the North", and was over by April 1070, when William wore his crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester.^[93]

Church affairs

While at Winchester in 1070, William met with three papal legates – John Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion, who had been sent by Pope Alexander. It was the legates who ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court.^[95] The historian David Bates sees this coronation as the ceremonial papal "seal of approval" for William's conquest.^[2] Then the legates and the king proceeded to hold a series of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganising the English church. Stigand and his brother, Æthelmær, the Bishop of Elmham were deposed from their bishoprics. Some of the native abbots were also deposed, both at the council held near Easter and at a further one near Whitsun. The Whitsun council saw the appointment of Lanfranc as the new Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas of Bayeux as the new Archbishop of York, to replace Ealdred, who had died in September 1069. Norman clergy were appointed to replace the deposed bishops and abbots, and at the end of the process, only two native English bishops remained in office, along with a number of continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor.^[95] In 1070 William also founded Battle Abbey, a new monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings, partly as a penance for the deaths in the battle and partly as a memorial to those dead.^[2]

Troubles in England and the Continent

Danish raids and rebellion in the north

Although Sweyn had promised to leave England, he returned in the spring of 1070, raiding along the Humber and East Anglia toward the Isle of Ely, where he joined up with Hereward the Wake, a local thegn. Hereward's forces attacked Peterborough Abbey and captured and looted it. However, William was able to secure the departure of Sweyn, who left England in 1070 with his fleet.^[96] This enabled William to return to the continent to deal with troubles in Maine, where the town of Le Mans had revolted in 1069. Another concern was the death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders, who died in July 1070. This left Flanders in the grip of a succession crisis, with widow of Baldwin VI ruling for her two young sons, but her rule was contested by Robert, Baldwin's brother. The widow proposed marriage to William fitzOsbern, who was in Normandy, and fitzOsbern accepted. However, fitzOsbern died in February 1071 at the Battle of Cassel which resulted in Robert becoming count. Robert was opposed to King William's power on the continent, so the Battle of Cassel not only lost the king an important supporter, but also upset the continental balance of power in northern France.^[97]

In 1071 William defeated the last rebellion of the north. Earl Edwin was betrayed by his own men and killed, while William built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Hereward escaped, but Morcar was captured, deprived of his earldom and imprisoned. In 1072 William invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north of England. William and Malcolm agreed to peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy and Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace. Another possible requirement for the peace was the expulsion of Edgar the Ætheling from Malcolm's court.^[98] William then turned his attentions to the continent, returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. With a swift campaign, William seized Le Mans from Fulk's forces, and had finished his campaign by 30 March 1073. This made William's power more secure in northern France, but the new Count of Flanders accepted Edgar the Ætheling into his court. Robert also married his half-sister Bertha to the king of France, Philip I, who was opposed to Norman power.^[99]

William returned to England to release his army from service in 1073, but then quickly returned to Normandy, where he spent the entire year of 1074.^[100] William left England in the hands of a number of his supporters, including Richard fitzGilbert and William de Warenne,^[101] as well as Lanfranc.^[102] William's ability to leave England for an entire year was a sign that he was feeling that his control of the kingdom was secure.^[101] While William was in Normandy, Edgar the Ætheling returned to Scotland from Flanders, and the French king, seeking a focus for persons opposed to William's power, proposed that the Ætheling be given the castle of Montreuil-sur-Mer on the English Channel, which would have given Edgar a strategic advantage against William. William managed to diffuse this threat by once more agreeing to allow Edgar at William's court,^[103] although the fact that Edgar was unable to take up the castle when the Ætheling's ships were wrecked contributed to Edgar's decision to submit to William.^[100][n] Philip, although thwarted in this attempt, then turned his attentions to Brittany, and this led to a revolt in 1075.^[103]

Revolt of the Earls

The castle at Norwich. The keep dates to after the Revolt of the Earls, but the castle mound is earlier.^[104]

In 1075, during William's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk and Roger de Breteuil, the Earl of Hereford conspired to overthrow William in the "Revolt of the Earls". Ralph was originally from Brittany and still held lands there. The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear, but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger's, held at Exning. Another earl, Waltheof, although one of William's favourites, was also involved, and there were a number of Breton lords who were ready to rebel in support of Ralph and Roger's efforts. Danish aid was also requested by Ralph. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey de Montbray, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Ralph eventually left Norwich in the hands of his wife and left England, finally ending up in Brittany. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, with the garrison allowed to go to Brittany. Meanwhile, the Danish king, Sweyn, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home.^[102] William only returned to England in autumn of 1075, to deal with the Danish threat, leaving his wife Matilda in charge of Normandy. William then celebrated Christmas at Winchester and dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion.^[105] Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, with Waltheof being executed in May 1076. Before this, however, William had returned to the continent, where Ralph had continued the rebellion from Brittany.^[102]

Troubles at home and abroad

Earl Ralph had secured control of the castle at Dol, and in September 1076 William advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle. King Philip of France later relieved the siege and defeated William at Dol, forcing him to retreat back to Normandy. Although this was William's first defeat in battle, it did little to change things. An Angevin attack on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077, with Count Fulk le Rechin wounded in the unsuccessful attack. More serious was the retirement of Simon de Crépy, the Count of Amiens, to a monastery. Before he became a monk, Simon handed his county of the Vexin over to King Philip. The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the French king's lands, and Simon had been a supporter of William's.^[o] William was able to make peace with Philip in 1077, and secured a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078.^[106]

In late 1077 or early 1078 trouble began between William and his eldest son, Robert. Although Orderic Vitalis describes it as starting with a quarrel between Robert and his two younger brothers, William and Henry, including a story that the quarrel was started when William and Henry threw water at Robert, it is much more likely that Robert was feeling powerless. Orderic relates that Robert had previously demanded control of Maine and Normandy and been rebuffed. The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men, many of them the sons of William's supporters. Included amongst them was Robert of Belleme, William de Breteuil, and Roger, the son of Richard fitzGilbert. This band of young men went to the castle at Remalard, where they proceeded to raid into Normandy. The raiders were supported by many of William's continental enemies.^[107] William immediately attacked the rebels and drove them from Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi, where they were joined by a number of new supporters. William then laid siege to Gerberoi in January 1079. After three weeks, the besieged forces sallied from the castle and managed to take the besiegers by surprise. William was unhorsed by Robert, and was only saved from death by an Englishman. William's forces were forced to lift the siege and the king returned to Rouen. By 12 April 1080, William and Robert had reached an accommodation, with William once more affirming that Robert would receive Normandy when William died.^[108]

The stone keep at Newcastle, built on the site of the wooden castle built by Robert Curthose in 1080^[109]

Word of William's defeat at Gerberoi stirred up difficulties in northern England. In August and September 1079 King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed, devastating the land between the River Tees and the Tweed in a raid that lasted almost a month. The lack of Norman response appears to have caused the Northumbrians to grow restive, and in the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of Walcher, the Bishop of Durham and Earl of Northumbria. The bishop was killed on 14 May 1080, and William dispatched his half-brother Odo to deal with the rebellion.^[110] William departed Normandy in July 1080,^[111] and in the autumn William's son Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots. Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms, and built a fortification at Newcastle-on-Tyne while returning to England.^[110] The king was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun in 1081, ceremonially wearing his crown on both occasions. A papal embassy arrived in England during this period, asking that William do fealty for England to the papacy, a request that William rejected.^[111] William also visited Wales during 1081, although the English and the Welsh sources differ on the exact purpose of the visit. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that it was a military campaign, but Welsh sources record it as a pilgrimage to St Davids in honour of Saint David. By the end of 1081, William was back on the continent, dealing with disturbances in Maine. Although he led an expedition into Maine, the result was instead a negotiated settlement arranged by a papal legate.^[112]

Last years

Sources for William's actions between 1082 and 1084 are meagre. According to the historian David Bates, this probably means that little happened of note, and that because William was on the continent, there was nothing for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to record.^[113] In 1082 William ordered the arrest of his half-brother Odo. The exact reasons are unclear, as no contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Orderic Vitalis later recorded that Odo had aspirations to become pope. Orderic also related that Odo had attempted to persuade some of William's vassals to join Odo on an invasion of southern Italy. This would have been considered tampering with the king's authority over his vassals, and was not something that William would have tolerated. Although Odo remained in confinement for the rest of William's reign, his lands were not confiscated. More difficulties struck in 1083, when his eldest son Robert rebelled once more with support from the French king. A further blow was the death of Matilda, William's wife, on 2 November 1083. William was always described as close to his wife, and her death would have added to his difficulties.^[114]

Maine continued to be difficult, with a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine, probably in 1084. Hubert was besieged in his castle at Sainte-Suzanne by William's forces for at least two years, but eventually made his peace with the king and was restored to favour. William's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear – he was in Normandy at Easter 1084, but may have been in England before that, in order to collect the danegeld that was assessed that year for the defence of England against an invasion by King Cnut IV of Denmark. Although English and Norman forces remained on alert throughout 1085 and into 1086, the invasion threat was ended by Cnut's death in July 1086.^[115]

William as king

Changes in England – castles, forests, and nobles

The White Tower of London, begun by William^[116]

As part of his efforts to secure England, William ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes built – among them the Tower of London's foundation (the White Tower). These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside. The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions which later were replaced with stone structures.^[117] Alongside the castles went a process of military reorganisation. At first, most of the newly settled Normans kept household knights and did not settle their retainers with fiefs of their own, but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own, a process known as subinfeudation. William also required his newly created magnates to contribute fixed quotas of knights towards not only military campaigns but also towards garrisoning castles. This method of organising the military forces was a departure from the pre-Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units such as the hide.^[118]

By William's death, after weathering a series of rebellions, most of the native Anglo-Saxon aristocracy had been replaced by Norman and other continental magnates. Not all of the Normans who accompanied William in the initial conquest acquired large amounts of land in England. Some appear to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that did not always appear pacified. Although a number of the newly rich Normans in England came from William's close family or from the upper Norman nobility, others were from relatively humble backgrounds.^[119] William granted lands to his continental followers in two differing methods. One was to grant to the new landholder the holding or holdings of one or more specific Englishmen. At other times William granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower, often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle.^[120]

The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land (36 parishes), turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting. Modern historians, however, have come to the conclusion that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated. Most of the lands of the New Forest are poor agricultural lands, and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that the New Forest was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest.^[121] William was known for his love of hunting, and he introduced the forest law into areas of the country, regulating who could hunt and what could be hunted.^[122]

Administration

English coin of William the Conqueror

After 1066, William did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws. His seal, of which 6 impressions still survive, stressed his role as king but separately mentioned his role as Duke, and was made for him after he conquered England.^[p] When in Normandy, William acknowledged that he owed fealty to the French king, but in England no such acknowledgement was made – further evidence that the various parts of William's lands were considered separate. The administrative machinery of Normandy, England, and Maine continued to exist separate from the other lands, with each one retaining its own forms. For example, England continued the use of writs which were not known on the continent. Also, the charters and documents produced for the government in Normandy differed in formulas from those produced in England.^[123]

William took over an English government that was more complex than the Norman system. England was divided into shires or counties, which were further divided into either hundreds or wapentakes. Each shire was administered by a royal official called a sheriff, who roughly had the same status as a Norman viscount. A sheriff was responsible for royal justice and collecting royal revenue.^[53] To oversee his expanded domain, William was forced to travel even more than he had as duke. He crossed back and forth between the continent and England at least 19 times between 1067 and his death. Between the Battle of Hastings and 1072, William spent most of his time actually in England, but after 1072, he spent the majority of his time in Normandy.^[52][q] Government was still centred around William's household, and when he was in one part of his realms, decisions would be made for other parts of his domains and transmitted through a communication system that utilised letters and other documents. William also appointed deputies who could make decisions while he was absent, especially if the absence was expected to be lengthy. Usually, this was a member of William's close family – usually his half-brother Odo or his wife Matilda. Sometimes deputies were appointed to deal with specific issues.^[124]

William continued the collection of danegeld, a land tax. This was an advantage for William, as it was the only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period. It was an annual tax based on the value of landholdings, and could be collected at differing rates. Most years saw the rate of 2 shillings per hide, but in crises, it could be increased to as much as 6 shillings per hide.^[125] Coinage between the various parts of his domains continued to be minted in different cycles and styles. English coins were generally of high silver content, with high artistic standards, and were required to be re-minted every three years. Norman coins, however, had a much lower silver content, were often of poor quality artistically, and were rarely re-minted. Also, in England no other coinage was allowed, while on the continent other coinage was considered legal tender. Nor is there evidence that many English pennies were circulating in Normandy, which shows little attempt to integrate the monetary systems between England and Normandy.^[123]

Besides taxation, William's rule was strengthened by his large landholdings throughout England. As King Edward's heir, he controlled all of the former royal lands. He also retained control of much of the lands of Harold and his family, which made the king the largest secular landowner in England by a large margin.^[r]

Domesday Book

A page from Domesday Book for Warwickshire.

At Christmas 1085, William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings of himself and his vassals throughout the kingdom, organised by counties, a work now known as the Domesday Book. Each county's listing gave the holdings of each landholder – grouped by owners. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, the value of the land, what the tax assessment was, and usually lists the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had. Towns were listed separately. All the English counties south of the River Tees and River Ribble are included. The whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath, a renewal of their oaths of allegiance.^[127] William's exact purpose in ordering the compilation of Domesday Book are unclear – likely it had several purposes including allowing increased taxation as well as record of feudal obligations.^[2]

Death and aftermath

Slab marking the site of William's grave

William left England towards the end of 1086. Following his arrival back on the continent he married his daughter Constance to Alan Fergant, the Count of Brittany, in furtherance of his policy of seeking allies against the French kings. William's son Robert, still allied with the French King Philip I, appears to have been active in stirring up trouble, enough so that William led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1087. While seizing Mantes, William either fell ill or was injured by the pommel of his saddle.^[128] He was taken to Rouen and the priory of St Gervase near the city, where he died on 9 September 1087.^[2] Knowledge of what happened before his death is confused by the fact that there are two different accounts. Orderic Vitalis preserves a lengthy account, complete with speeches made by many of the principals, but his account is likely more of an account of how a king should die than an account of what actually happened. The other account, the De Obitu Willelmi, or On the Death of William, has been shown to be a copy of two 9th-century accounts with names changed.^[128]

William left Normandy to Robert, and the custody of England was given to William's second surviving son, also called William, on the assumption that he would become king. The youngest son, Henry, received money. After entrusting England to his second son, the elder William sent the younger William back to England on 7 or 8 September, bearing a letter to Lanfranc ordering the archbishop to aid the new king. Other bequests included gifts to the Church and money to be distributed to the poor. William also ordered that all of his prisoners be released, including his half-brother Odo.^[128]

Disorder followed William's death; everyone who had been at his deathbed left the body at Rouen and hurried off to attend to their own affairs. Eventually, the clergy of Rouen arranged to have the body sent to Caen, where William had desired to be buried in his foundation of St Etienne. The funeral, attended by the bishops and abbots of Normandy as well as his son Henry, was disturbed by the assertion of a citizen of Caen who alleged that his family had been illegally despoiled of the land on which the church was built. After hurried consultations, the allegation was shown to be true, and the man was compensated. A further indignity occurred when the corpse was lowered into the tomb. The corpse was too large for the space, and when attendants forced the body into the tomb, the body burst and spread a disgusting odour throughout the church.^[129]

William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription dating from the early 19th century. The tomb has been disturbed a number of times since 1087, the first time in 1522 when the grave was opened on orders from the papacy. The body was restored to the tomb intact at that time, but in 1562 during the French Wars of Religion the grave was opened and the bones were scattered and lost with the exception of one thigh bone. This lone relic was reburied in 1642 with a new marker, which was replaced 100 years later with a more elaborate monument. This tomb was again destroyed during the French Revolution, but was eventually replaced with the current marker.^[130][s]

Legacy

The immediate consequence of William's death was a war between his sons Robert and William over control of England and Normandy.^[2] Even after the younger William's death in 1100 and the succession of his youngest brother Henry as king, Normandy and England remained contested between the brothers until Robert's capture by Henry at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106. The difficulties over the succession led to a loss of authority in Normandy, with the aristocracy regaining much of the power they had lost to the elder William. His sons also lost much of their control over Maine, which revolted in 1089 and managed to remain mostly free of Norman influence thereafter.^[132]

The impact on England of William's conquest was profound; changes in the Church, aristocracy, culture, and language of the country have lasted into modern times. The Conquest brought the kingdom into closer contact with France and forged ties between France and England that lasted throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. Another consequence of William's invasion was the sundering of the formerly close ties between England and Scandinavia. William's government blended elements of the English and Norman systems into a new one that laid the foundations of the later medieval English kingdom.^[133] How abrupt and far-reaching the changes were are still a matter of debate amongst historians, with some historians such as Richard Southern claiming that the Conquest was the single most radical change in European history between the Fall of Rome and the 20th century. Other historians, such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles, see the changes brought about by the Conquest as much less radical than Southern suggests.^[134] The historian Eleanor Searle describes William's invasion as "a plan that no ruler but a Scandinavian would have considered".^[135]

William's reign has caused historical controversy since before his death. William of Poitiers wrote glowingly of William's reign and its benefits, but the obituary notice for William in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle condemns William in harsh terms.^[134] In the years since the Conquest, politicians and other leaders have used William and the events of his reign to illustrate political events throughout English history. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, Archbishop Matthew Parker saw the Conquest as corrupting a purer English Church, which Parker attempted to restore. During the 17th and 18th centuries some historians and lawyers saw William's reign as imposing a "Norman yoke" on the native Anglo-Saxons, an argument that continued during the 19th century with further elaborations along nationalistic lines. These various controversies have led to William being seen by some historians either as one of the creators of England's greatness or as inflicting one of the greatest defeats in English history. Others have viewed William as an enemy of the English Constitution, or alternatively as its creator.^[136]

Family and children

William married Matilda of Flanders and had at least nine children.^[47] The birth order of the boys is clear, but no source gives the relative order of birth of the daughters.^[2]

1. Robert Born between 1051–1054, died 10 February 1134.^[47] Duke of Normandy, married Sybil of Conversano, daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano.^[137]
2. Richard Born before 1056, died around 1075.^[47]
3. William Born between 1056 and 1060, died 2 August 1100.^[47] King of England, killed in the New Forest.
4. Henry Born late 1068, died 1 December 1135.^[47] King of England, married Edith of Scotland, daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland. His second wife was Adeliza of Louvain.^[138]
5. Adeliza (or Adelida,^[139] Adelaide^[138]) Died before 1113, reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England, probably a nun of St Léger at Préaux.^[139]
6. Cecilia (or Cecily) Born before 1066, died 1127, Abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen.^[47]
7. Matilda^[2][139] Born around 1061, died perhaps about 1086.^[138] Mentioned in Domesday Book as a daughter of William.^[47]
8. Constance Died 1090, married Alan IV Fergent, Duke of Brittany.^[47]
9. Adela Died 1137, married Stephen, Count of Blois.^[47]

Another daughter, Agatha, who was reportedly betrothed to Alfonso VI of Castile, is often ascribed to William and Matilda, but her existence is doubtful,^[139] and may be a simple confusion with Adeliza.^[47] There is no evidence of any illegitimate children born to William.^[140]

Ancestors

Notes

Citations

References

External links

• Portraits of King William I ('The Conqueror') at the National Portrait Gallery, London

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: William the Conqueror

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: William I of England

v t e Dukes of Normandy House of Normandy 911–1135 Rollo William I Richard I Richard II Richard III Robert I William II Robert II Henry I William III House of Blois 1135–1144 Stephen House of Plantagenet 1144–1259 Geoffrey Henry II Henry the Young Richard IV John Henry III