wine

n.

1. 1. A beverage made of the fermented juice of any of various kinds of grapes, usually containing from 10 to 15 percent alcohol by volume.
   2. A beverage made of the fermented juice of any of various other fruits or plants.
2. Something that intoxicates or exhilarates.
3. The color of red wine.

v., wined, win·ing, wines.

v.tr.
To provide or entertain with wine.

v.intr.
To drink wine.

[Middle English, from Old English wīn, from Latin vīnum.]

wine

For more information on wine, visit Britannica.com.

Background

Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced through the partial or total fermentation of grapes. Other fruits and plants, such as berries, apples, cherries, dandelions, elder-berries, palm, and rice can also be fermented.

Grapes belong to the botanical family vitaceae, of which there are many species. The species that are most widely used in wine production are Vitis labrusca and, especially, Vitis vinifera, which has long been the most widely used wine grape throughout the world.

The theory that wine was discovered by accident is most likely correct because wine grapes contain all the necessary ingredients for wine, including pulp, juice, and seeds that possess all the acids, sugars, tannins, minerals, and vitamins that are found in wine. As a natural process, the frosty-looking skin of the grape, called "bloom," catches the airborne yeast and enzymes that ferment the juice of the grape into wine.

The cultivation of wine grapes for the production of wine is called "viticulture." Harvested during the fall, wine grapes may range in color from pale yellow to hearty green to ruby red.

Wine can be made in the home and in small-, medium- or large-sized wineries by using similar methods. Wine is made in a variety of flavors, with varying degrees of sweetness or dryness as well as alcoholic strength and quality. Generally, the strength, color, and flavor of the wine are controlled during the fermentation process.

Wine is characterized by color: white, pink or rose, and red, and it can range in alcohol content from 10 percent to 14 percent. Wine types can be divided into four broad categories: table wines, sparkling wines, fortified wines, and aromatic wines. Table wines include a range of red, white, and rose wines; sparkling wines include champagne and other "bubbly" wines; aromatic wines contain fruits, plants, and flowers; and fortified wines are table wines with brandy or other alcohol added.

The name of a wine almost invariably is derived from one of three sources: the name of the principal grape from which it was made, the geographical area from which it comes, or—in the case of the traditionally finest wines—from a particular vineyard or parcel of soil. The year in which a wine is made is only printed on bottles that have aged for two or more years; those aged less are not considered worthy of a date. Wine years are known as "vintages" or "vintage years." While certain wines are considered good or bad depending on the year they were produced, this can vary by locality.

In general, red wines are supposed to age from seven to ten years before being sold. Because white and rose wines are not enhanced by additional ageing, they are usually aged from only one to four years before being sold. And, since the quality of wine can depend on proper ageing, older wines are generally more expensive than younger ones. Other factors, however, can affect the quality of wine, and proper ageing does not always ensure quality. Other factors affecting quality include the grapes themselves, when the grapes are picked, proper care of the grapes, the fermentation process, as well as other aspects of wine production.

Most wineries bottle wine in different size bottles and have different product and graphic designs on their labels. The most common bottle sizes are the half bottle, the imperial pint, the standard bottle, and the gallon bottle or jug. Most red and rose wine bottles are colored to keep light from ageing the wine further after they are on the market.

While viticulture has remained much the same for centuries, new technology has helped increase the output and variety of wine.

History

Well documented in numerous Biblical references, evidence of wine can be traced back to Egypt as far as 5,000 B.C. Tomb wall paintings showing the use of wine as well as actual wine jars found in Egyptian tombs provide evidence of this fact. Because more northern climates and soil produce better wine, the growth of the wine industry can be traced from its emergence along the Nile River in Egypt and Persia northward into Europe and, eventually, to North America.

Though the wines of old were coarse and hard and had to be mixed with water, ancient Greek wine proved to be somewhat better than Egyptian wine. For this reason, Egyptians began importing it. Then Roman wines (from what would emerge to be Italy, Spain, and France) became notably superior. Eventually, French and German wines grew to be the most desirable, thereby shifting the center of wine production from the Mediterranean to central Europe. Some of the best wine in the world is still produced in southern France, particularly in the Bordeaux region, where wine has been made for more than 2,000 years.

The colonists brought wine production to the east coast of the New World by the mid-1600s. The earliest account of wine used in the New World may be when the Pilgrims fermented grapes to celebrate their first Thanksgiving in 1623. Settlers tried to grow imported grape cuttings they brought from Europe, but unfortunately the European cuttings had not developed immunities to the North American plant diseases that eventually killed them. By the middle of the nineteenth century (using the fruits of the abundant native Vitis labrusca grape plants) wineries were established in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and North Carolina.

In 1697, European cuttings of Vitis vinifera grapes were successfully introduced to California by Franciscan priests at the Mission San Francisco Xavier. They soon became the dominant grape species in California wine making. A great boost to California wine making came from Colonel Agoston Haraszthy, a Hungarian nobleman, who introduced more high-quality European cuttings during the 1850s. His knowledge made him the founder of California's modern wine industry.

Today, California and New York state are by far the largest American producers of wine, and California is one of the largest wine producers in the world. Though many of its table wines are known for their quality, the enormous wineries of central and southern California produce gigantic quantities of neutral, bulk wines that they ship elsewhere to make specific wines, such as dessert wines, or to blend with other wines. They also make grape concentrates to fortify weaker wines and brandies that use large quantities of grapes.

Raw Materials

As mentioned above, the wine grape itself contains all the necessary ingredients for wine: pulp, juice, sugars, acids, tannins, and minerals. However, some manufacturers add yeast to increase strength and cane or beet sugar to increase alcoholic content. During fermentation, winemakers also usually add sulfur dioxide to control the growth of wild yeasts.

The Manufacturing
Process

The process of wine production has remained much the same throughout the ages, but new sophisticated machinery and technology have helped streamline and increase the output of wine. Whether such advances have enhanced the quality of wine is, however, a subject of debate. These advances include a variety of mechanical harvesters, grape crushers, temperature-controlled tanks, and centrifuges.

The procedures involved in creating wine are often times dictated by the grape and the amount and type of wine being produced. Recipes for certain types of wine require the winemaker (the vintner) to monitor and regulate the amount of yeast, the fermentation process, and other steps of the process. While the manufacturing process is highly automated in medium- to large-sized wineries, small wineries still use hand operated presses and store wine in musty wine cellars.

A universal factor in the production of fine wine is timing. This includes picking grapes at the right time, removing the must at the right time, monitoring and regulating fermentation, and storing the wine long enough.

The wine-making process can be divided into four distinct steps: harvesting and crushing grapes; fermenting must; ageing the wine; and packaging.

Harvesting and crushing grapes

• Vineyardists inspect sample clusters of wine grapes with a refractometer to determine if the grapes are ready to be picked. The refractometer is a small, hand-held device (the size of a miniature telescope) that allows the vineyardist to accurately check the amount of sugar in the grapes.
• If the grapes are ready for picking, a mechanical harvester (usually a suction picker) gathers and funnels the grapes into a field hopper, or mobile storage container. Some mechanical harvesters have grape crushers mounted on the machinery, allowing vineyard workers to gather grapes and press them at the same time. The result is that vineyards can deliver newly crushed grapes, called must, to wineries, eliminating the need for crushing at the winery. This also prevents oxidization of the juice through tears or splits in the grapes' skins.

  Mechanical harvesters, or, in some cases, robots, are now used in most medium to large vineyards, thereby eliminating the need for hand-picking. First used in California vineyards in 1968, mechanical harvesters have significantly decreased the time it takes to gather grapes. The harvesters have also allowed grapes to be gathered at night when they are cool, fresh, and ripe.

• The field hoppers are transported to the winery where they are unloaded into a crusher-stemmer machine. Some crusher-stemmer machines are hydraulic while others are driven by air pressure.

  The grapes are crushed and the stems are removed, leaving liquid must that flows either into a stainless steel fermentation tank or a wooden vat (for fine wines).

Fermenting the must

• For white wine, all the grape skins are separated from the "must" by filters or centrifuges before the must undergoes fermentation. For red wine, the whole crushed grape, including the skin, goes into the fermentation tank or vat. (The pigment in the grape skins give red wine its color. The amount of time the skins are left in the tank or vat determines how dark or light the color will be. For rose, the skins only stay in the tank or vat for a short time before they are filtered out.)
• During the fermentation process, wild yeast are fed into the tank or vat to turn the sugar in the must into alcohol. To add strength, varying degrees of yeast may be added. In addition, cane or beet sugar may be added to increase the alcoholic content. Adding sugar is call chaptalization. Usually chaptalization is done because the grapes have not received enough sun prior to harvesting. The winemaker will use a handheld hydrometer to measure the sugar content in the tank or vat. The wine must ferments in the tank or vat for approximately seven to fourteen days, depending on the type of wine being produced.

Ageing the wine

• After crushing and fermentation, wine needs to be stored, filtered, and properly aged. In some instances, the wine must also be blended with other alcohol. Many wineries still store wine in damp, subterranean wine cellars to keep the wine cool, but larger wineries now store wine above ground in epoxylined and stainless steel tanks. The tanks are temperature-controlled by water that circulates inside the lining of the tank shell. Other similar tanks are used instead of the old redwood and concrete vats when wine is temporarily stored during the settling process.

  After fermentation, certain wines (mainly red wine) will be crushed again and pumped into another fermentation tank where the wine will ferment again for approximately three to seven days. This is done not only to extend the wine's shelf life but also to ensure clarity and color stability.

  The wine is then pumped into settling ("racking") tanks or vats. The wine will remain in the tank for one to two months. Typically, racking is done at 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 16 degrees Celsius) for red wine, and 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) for white wine.

• After the initial settling (racking) process, certain wines are pumped into another settling tank or vat where the wine remains for another two to three months. During settling the weighty unwanted debris (remaining stem pieces, etc.) settle to the bottom of the tank and are eliminated when the wine is pumped into another tank. The settling process creates smoother wine. Additional settling may be necessary for certain wines.
• After the settling process, the wine passes through a number of filters or centrifuges where the wine is stored at low temperatures or where clarifying substances trickle through the wine.
• After various filtering processes, the wine is aged in stainless steel tanks or wooden vats. White and rose wines may age for a year to four years, or far less than a year. Red wines may age for seven to ten years. Most large wineries age their wine in large temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks that are above ground, while smaller wineries may still store their wine in wooden barrels in damp wine cellars.
• The wine is then filtered one last time to remove unwanted sediment.

  The wine is now ready to be bottled, corked, sealed, crated, labeled, and shipped to distributors.

Packaging

• Most medium- to large-sized wineries I now use automated bottling machines, and most moderately priced and expensive wine bottles have corks made of a special oak. The corks are covered with a peel-off aluminum foil or plastic seal. Cheaper wines have an aluminum screw-off cap or plastic stopper. The corks and screw caps keep the air from spoiling the wine. Wine is usually shipped in wooden crates, though cheaper wines may be packaged in cardboard.

Quality Control

All facets of wine production must be carefully controlled to create a quality wine. Such variables as the speed with which harvested grapes are crushed; the temperature and timing during both fermentation and ageing; the percent of sugar and acid in the harvested grapes; and the amount of sulfur dioxide added during fermentation all have a tremendous impact on the quality of the finished wine.

Where To Learn More

Books

Adams, Leon. The Wines of America. McGraw Hill, 1978.

Anderson, Stanley F. Winemaking. Harcourt Brace & Company, 1989.

Churchill, Creighton. The World of Wines. Collier Books, 1980.

Farkas, J. The Technology & Biochemistry of Wine. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, Inc., 1988.

Hazelton, Nika. American Wines. Grosset Good Life Books, 1976.

Johnson, Hugh. The Vintner's Art: How Great Wines are Made. Simon & Schuster Trade, 1992.

McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking. Collier Books, 1984.

Ough, Cornelius S. Winemaking Basics. Haworth Press, Inc., 1992.

Rainbird, George. An Illustrated Guide to Wine. Harmony Books, 1983.

Zaneilli, Leo. Beer and Wine Making Illustrated Dictionary. A. S. Barnes & Company, 1978.

Periodicals

Asimov, Isaac. "The Legacy of Wine," The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. July, 1991, p. 81.

Merline, John W. "What's in Wine? (Calling All Consumers)," Consumers' Research Magazine. November 1986, p. 38.

Oliver, Laure. "Fermenting Wine the Natural Way," The Wine Spectator. October 31, 1992, p. 9.

Robinson, Jancis. "Spreading the Gospel of Oak," The Wine Spectator. August 31, 1991, p. 20.

Roby, Norm. "Getting Back to Nature," The Wine Spectator. October 15, 1990, p. 22.

[Article by: Greg Ling]

Alcoholic beverages made by fermentation of the juice of fruits or berries, essentially grape juice. Wines from other materials are always required to show their source on the label, for example, apple wine, berry wine, and cherry wine. California produces the largest percentage of the grape wine made in the United States, and well over a hundred varieties of the cultivated grape (Vitis vinifera) are used.

Classification of wine depends on the color, relative sweetness, alcoholic content, presence of carbon dioxide, the variety of grape, and the region where the grapes are grown. Wines may be red or white. The terms dry and sweet refer to the relative sugar content of a wine. Table wines contain less than 14% alcohol by volume, and dessert wines contain over 14%, usually 20%, alcohol. The higher alcohol content of dessert wines is obtained by the addition of brandy, which is called fortification. Sparkling wines such as champagne and sparkling Burgundy contain carbon dioxide.

Grapes are harvested and go through a crusher-stemmer, which crushes the berries, but not the seeds, and removes the stems. The must, still containing seeds and skins, is pumped to fermentation tanks where it receives sulfur dioxide gas. This controls, to a large extent, the growth of bacteria and wild yeasts, whereas the various strains of wine yeast are adapted to this amount of SO₂. A pure yeast starter is then added. In the production of white wines, the juice is separated from the skins and seeds at an early stage of fermentation. See also Fermentation.

After the initial fermentation, the wine is transferred to the storage cellar for completion of fermentation, clarification, aging, stabilization, and bottling. These operations are called cellar practices. The sediment of yeast and other insoluble matter is called lees. The new wine is drawn off, or racked, from the lees to avoid picking up undesirable flavors from the lees. Aging is then continued. Wines are often chilled to precipitate excess cream of tartar, the potassium acid tartrate from the grape, which otherwise might precipitate upon chilling of bottled wine. Champagne is made by allowing a secondary fermentation to occur with a special flocculating type of yeast. either in bottles, by the original French procedure, or in bulk, using pressure tanks followed by bottling. The carbon dioxide, CO₂, of sparkling wines is produced by yeast fermentation.

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Fermented juice from grapes (varieties of Vitis vinifera). Red wines are made by fermenting the juice together with the skins at 21-29°C; white wines normally from white grapes by fermenting the juice alone at 15-17°C; rosé by removing the skins after 12-36 hours, or by mixing red and white wines.

Beverages made by fermenting other fruit juices and sugar in the presence of vegetables, leaves, or roots are also called wines (elderberry, elderflower, parsnip, peapod, rhubarb, etc.), although the legal definition may be restricted to the fermented grape. See also alcoholic beverages.

White wines are graded as dry (0.6% sugars), to sweet (6% sugars), on a scale of 1 to 9. Red wines are graded from A (light and dry) to E (full-bodied and heavy). Wines generally contain 9-14% alcohol, dry wines 70 kcal (290 kJ), sweet wines 120  kcal (500 kJ), and about 1 mg of iron per 100 mL; there are only traces of vitamins.

Unless otherwise specified, wine refers to the naturally fermented juice of grapes. More broadly, the term can include alcoholic beverages created from other fruits and even vegetables. Wine has a rich history that has evolved along with that of humankind. Its historical roots reach back almost 12,000 years. As various cultures spread out into new parts of the world, so did the grapevine and the art of winemaking. Today there are vineyards throughout the world with good wine being produced in far-ranging locations from the United States to South Africa to Australia to South America to Europe. Wine is broadly classified in the following categories: 1. still (nonsparkling) wines-including red, white and rosé-which can be dry (nonsweet), semisweet and sweet; 2. sparkling wines, including French champagnes as well as effervescent wines from other parts of the world; 3. fortified wines, such as sherry and port, which have been augmented with a dose of brandy or other spirit; and 4. aromatic wines, such as vermouth, which have been flavored with ingredients like herbs or spices. Vintage wine is that which is made with 95 percent of the grapes harvested in a specific year; the year or "vintage" is indicated on the wine label. Nonvintage wine is made from the juice of grapes harvested from several years; there's no year noted on the label of such wine. blush wines are made with red grapes, but the juice has had a very brief contact with the grape skins, which produces pale pink wines. Wine storage locations should be dark, vibration free and at an even temperature. The ideal temperature is 55°F, however, anywhere from 45° to 70°F is acceptable, providing the temperature is consistent. The higher the temperature, the faster a wine will age. Wine bottles should be stored on their sides to prevent the cork from drying and shrinking, which would allow air to enter the bottle and disrupt the wine's flavor. Serving temperatures: White wine should be served at a range of between 50° and 55°F; red wine at around 65°F. Refrigerating white wine for more than 2 hours before serving can dull its flavor and aroma. Avoid drips when pouring wine by giving the bottle a slight twist just as you finish pouring. See also acetic acid; alsatian wines; appellation; asti spumante; auslese; bardolino; barolo; beaujolais; beerenauslese; blanc de blancs; blanc de noirs; botrytis cinerea; bouquet; brunello di montalcino; burgundy; byrrh; cabernet franc; cabernet sauvignon; chablis; character; chardonnay; château-bottled; châteauneuf-du-pape; chenin blanc; chianti; claret; classico; cognac; cold duck; cooking wine; corkage; corkscrew; côtes du rhône; cuvée; decant; decanter; delaware grape; demi-sec; dessert wine; dosage; dubonnet; enology; fining; fino; fortified wine; french colombard; gewürztraminer; graves; kir; lambrusco; late harvest; lees; liebfraumilch; lillet; madeira; malic acid; manzanilla; marc; marsala; may wine; merlot; méthode champenoise; mirin; mulled wine; muscadet; muscadine grape; muscat grape; muscatel wine; must; niagara grape; nose; oloroso; pasteurization; petite sirah; pinot blanc; pinot chardon-nay; pinot noir; pomace; rape; retsina; rhône wines; rice wine; riserva; rosato; rosé wines; sake; sangiovese; sangría; sauternes; sauvignon blanc; sec; sediment; semillon; sommelier; spätlese; spritzer; spumante; sylvaner; tannin; tartaric acid; tokay grape; trockenbeerenauslese; valpolicella; varietal wine; vin; vintage; viticulture; vouvray; wine bottles; wine label terms; yeast; zinfandel. For complete and detailed wine-related information, see Wine Lover's Companion published by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.

The Bible ascribes to Noah the first vineyard, from whose fruit he made and drank wine (Gen. 9:20-21). Wine was one of the products of the Land of Israel which the Pentateuch cites as a sign of the land's fertility and abundance (Gen. 49:11; Deut. 33:28). Widespread production of wine in ancient Israel has been confirmed by archeological finds.

As a beverage, it regularly accompanied the main meal of the day. Wherever the Bible mentions "cup"---for example, "my cup brims over" (Ps. 23:5)---the reference is to a cup of wine, which is said to "gladden the heart of man" (Ps. 104:15).

Wine played a prominent role in ritual and religious usage. The Torah stipulates the amount of wine to be poured on the altar as a libation in connection with each type of sacrifice (e.g., Num. 28-29). It was the practice, later developed into a ritual, to offer mourners a cup of wine. The practice is reflected in the verse "Give ... wine to the bitter in soul" (Prov. 31:6).

This widespread use of wine inevitably led in some instances to drunkenness, a state strongly condemned in the Bible and already occurring in the stories of Noah (Gen. 9:21-24) and Lot (Gen. 19:31-38). The Rechabites, maintaining the ancient traditions of their nomad forefathers, refrained from drinking wine (Jer. 35:2ff.). During his period of naziriteship, a Nazirite was enjoined from drinking wine and even from any liquid in which grapes had been steeped (Num. 6:13).

In the talmudic epoch, both the cultivation of vineyards and the production of wine were a prominent feature of the economy and a number of sages were vintners. While the Bible speaks of only three types of wine, at least ten varieties have been identified in talmudic sources. Some of these were mixed with various spices. It was customary to dilute wine before drinking by adding one-third water. The main meal of the day, taken in the evening (only breakfast and supper were eaten in talmudic times), consisted of two courses, with each of which a cup of wine was drunk.

Several basic religious rituals were marked by the drinking of one or more cups of wine over which a special benediction was recited: "...Who creates the fruit of the vine." The rabbis said, "There is no rejoicing without wine" (although they warned against over-indulgence---except on Purim). At a Circumcision, one cup of wine was drunk. At a Marriage ceremony, since it consisted in post-talmudic times of two parts, two cups of wine were used from which both the bride and groom sipped. Mourners in their seven-day period of Mourning were given ten cups of wine, a practice that was abandoned in the post-talmudic period. Sabbath and festivals were greeted by the recitation of the Sanctification (Kiddush) over a cup of wine. In the ceremony marking the end of the Sabbath or festival (Havdalah), a cup of wine is used, while a characteristic feature of the Passover Seder service is the drinking of four cups of wine. Four cups of wine are also drunk in the Tu bi-Shevat seder developed by Isaac Luria (see New Year for Trees).

Since wine was widely used in idolatrous worship, the sages forbade the consumption of such wine, known as yén nesekh. The prohibition forbade wine that had been so much as touched by a non-Jew. It was extended to include any wine produced by a non-Jew, even if not intended for idolatrous worship. The Law Committee of the Conservative movement has removed the latter ban, which was never accepted by the Reform movement.

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According to biblical tradition Noah was the first man to plant a vineyard (Gen 9:20-22). From the Bible, Egyptian wall paintings and reliefs and the remains of installations found in Palestine, it is possible to reconstruct the methods by which wine was made. The grapes were brought in baskets from the vineyards to the treading area of the winepress, which in the biblical period was either a natural flat rock or one flattened artificially (Is 5:2; 16:10; Jer 48:33). The grapes were spread out on the rock and trodden, so that the juice flowed through shallow channels to a vat hewn at one end of the pressing ground. It was left to settle during the night and then collected into jars, which were closed with clay stoppers. The skins of the grapes, which had been left behind after the first pressing, would be pressed again in order to extract the remaining juice. The jars containing the juice were then taken to the wine cellar for fermentation. The cellar might be a natural cave or a hewn cistern, in which the correct temperature for the fermentation process could be maintained. Once the fermentation was completed the origin and quality of the wine, plus the name of its owner, would be marked on the seal.

The Bible records several names and types of wines, e.g., "blood of grapes" (Gen 49:11), "wines on the less" (Is 25:6), "wine of Helbon" (Ezek 27:18), "wine of Lebanon" (Hos 14:7). Additional names have been found on inscribed jars from the biblical period in Palestine.

Wine was also made from dates, pomegranates, apples and other fruit, and from grain. From the NT we know that wine was sometimes mixed with other substances such as gall (Matt 27:34), myrrh (Mark 15:23) or oil for medicinal purposes (Luke 10:34). Ordinarily wine would have been served mixed with water.

Wine played an important role in the religious rituals of the ancient Near East. It was used in the daily (Ex 29:40) and monthly (Num 28:14) sacrifices and holy days (Num 15:5ff). The law of the Nazirites forbade the consumption of wine (Num 6:3; Judg 13:4) and the Rechabites willingly refrained from it (Jer 35:2 ff). The priests officiating in the tent of congregation also refrained from drinking wine (Lev 10:9; Ezek 44:21).

The vine was a symbol of prosperity and fertility (I Kgs 4:25; II Kgs 18:31) and grapes were one of the seven "fruits" of which the Holy Land boasted (Deut 7:13). Important personages would be greeted with bread and wine (Gen 14:18). The Bible does not favor intoxication (Prov 23:29-35; Is 22:12-14; 28:1, etc.), but abstention was a token of mourning (Dan 10:3). Wine was given to those who worked hard (II Chr 2:10). People on a journey would drink it (Josh 9:13; Judg 19:19), as would the weary, those who had lost their way and those who were embittered (II Sam 16:2; Prov 31:6-7). As well as being used in medicine it was an everyday beverage for kings and special ministers were appointed to supply it (Gen 40:2; Neh 2:1). The kings of Israel and Judah owned large vineyards and the wine was stored in the royal stores which were also used to house taxes paid in kind (I Chr 12:40; 27:27; II Chr 11:11).

The importance of viticulture in Palestine in biblical items, as well as in the Roman and Byzantine periods, is well attested by the archeological finds. Many hundreds of winepresses, some of which were most elaborate, have been discovered almost everywhere in the country, dating from the Iron Age onwards. Beam presses were used from the Iron Age, but the vertical screw press device was only known from the Byzantine period.

Alongside the local wines foreign wines were imported into Palestine, as can be seen both in some of the biblical passages referred to above and in evidence from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Thousands of stamped jar handles from Rhodes, Chios, Cos and other wine-producing islands, as well as from different parts of Italy, attest to this. Pagan cults, in which wine was an important ingredient, were also common in Palestine throughout these periods.

Jesus uses the metaphor of old and new wine skins to explain the newness of his own ministry in announcing the near arrival of the Kingdom of God (Matt 9:17 etc.). John the Baptist appears to have avoided strong drink (Luke 1:15). In comparison with him Jesus was thought to be a "winebibber" (Matt 11:19; Luke 7:34). Jesus even turned water into wine at the wedding feast of Cana (John 2:2-10). Wine is recommended for medicinal purposes in I Timothy 5:23. The most exalted use of wine in the NT is at the Lord's supper, communion or eucharistic meal of thanksgiving (Matt 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:17-19; I Cor 11:23-26). At his last meal with his disciples, Jesus took a cup, presumably filled with Passover wine, though the texts do not mention wine explicitly, and interpreted it during the blessing as his blood which would be shed for the forgiveness of sins. He also announced that he would not drink of the "fruit of the vine" again until he would drink it new in the Kingdom of God. Thus when he was offered painkilling wine just before his crucifixion (Mark 15:23) and sour wine during it (Mark 15:36), he refused it.

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[Ge]

Fermented grape juice prepared as an alcoholic drink and of considerable antiquity in the Old World. Grape seeds have been found in archaeological contexts from the onwards, although it is uncertain whether these early finds relate to the production of alcoholic drinks or were simply a food source. The earliest certain remains of wine recorded to date is the sediment in an amphora dated to about 3500 bc from Godin Tepe in Iran. Ceramic vessels developed for the storage and consumption of wine appear from Bronze Age times onwards in the eastern and central Mediterranean. The wild vine (Vitis vinifera sylvestris) was once widely distributed around the Mediterranean and between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. It was in this last-mentioned area, in Armenia and southern Georgia, for example, that vines were probably first domesticated in the 4th millennium bc (Vitis vinifera sativa). Trade in wine developed rapidly from the mid 3rd millennium onwards, and it is the containers used to transport wine (mainly amphorae but later barrels as well) that allow reconstructions of the process to be made from archaeological evidence.

In the early nineteenth century Nicholas Longworth, an optimistic and eccentric settler of Cincinnati, raised eyebrows when he planted grapes on his farmlands in southwestern Ohio. On occasion, easterners had tried making wine but had disliked the taste; Longworth's wine, however, seemed palatable. Like many wine makers in the nineteenth century, including Thomas Jefferson, Longworth championed wine as a beverage of temperance, arguing that it was more civilized than distilled spirits. But the wine industry faced formidable challenges. For most of the nineteenth century, wine making was a small-scale, agrarian undertaking concentrated in eastern states. Demand was largely local and most Americans preferred spirits or beer, which were much cheaper, to wine. Until the late twentieth century, wine consumption was very low in the United States. The industry has always been composed of growers and vintners, although many industry members have engaged in both supplying and processing. The production of wine has proved land and labor intensive and therefore unattractive to farmers seeking easier profits. Wine making in the 1800s, furthermore, was hampered by crop diseases and insects. By the end of the century, however, the development of fungicides and other scientific advances fostered an increase in grape growing and wine making.

California Wine

Another important development was the rise of the wine industry in California, particularly northern California, in the late 1800s, when it became the country's leading wine-producing state. As did many other industries, the wine industry experienced consolidation during this period. The California Wine Association (CWA), founded in 1894, organized the industry in that state, and in what is sometimes referred to as the "wine war," aggressively cut prices to put its competitors out of business. The leaders of the wine industry became financiers instead of farmers and wine merchants. During this period, demand for wine moved from the country to the city, and because of the CWA's push for a standardized product, the public favored sweet, fortified wines at cheap prices. By the advent of Prohibition in 1919, most Americans viewed wine just as they did distilled spirits: as a mass-produced, intemperate beverage. Moreover, they regarded American wine as inferior to European wine. Wine, earlier respected as a beverage of moderation, now became an easy target for the Temperance Movement.

Prohibition and Afterward

Prohibition had a devastating impact on the wine industry. Growers converted vineyards to other crops and most wineries were abandoned. Over 1,000 commercial wineries existed before Prohibition, but at Repeal in 1933, only 150 remained. The industry had a much more difficult time recovering from Prohibition than did the Brewing and distilling industries. In the several decades after Prohibition, American wine still had the reputation of being a cheap drink that "belonged in paper bags on skid row" (Lukacs, American Vintage, p. 94). The association between wine and spirits was strengthened during World War II when several large distillers aggressively entered the wine business. The distillers exited by the end of the 1940s, but the connection was cemented in the minds of many.

As did most other agriculturally based enterprises, wine making became a big business during the postwar years. The industry once again experienced consolidation, going from around 1,300 commercial wineries in 1936 to only 271 in 1960. In the East, the largest wineries could be found in the Finger Lakes region of New York. In California two companies, E. and J. Gallo and United Vinters, dominated the industry and in 1967 Gallo claimed its place, which it still holds, as the world's largest winery.

The Turn Toward Wine

The ascendance of the wine industry began in the 1960s when prosperous and well-traveled Americans developed a taste for table wines, which transported wine consumption from the gutter into sophisticated and affluent homes. The Gallos participated in this shift when they began to plant premium grapes and strove for excellence in their wine making. Also influential was Robert Mondavi, another California wine producer, who designed his wines to taste like those of France. Mondavi and others were able to manipulate grapes and wines to achieve desired tastes. Unlike the European wine industry, which was built on craft and tradition, the post-Repeal wine industry in America was based on technology and science after Prohibition severed American wine makers' association with the past. In the 1960s and after, the industry relied on research and experimentation and was closely associated with agricultural researchers at several land-grant universities. Also, big corporations such as Coca-Cola, Nestlé, and Schlitz Brewing entered the industry in hopes of earning large profits from a rising enterprise. Nestle succeeded in turning Beringer into an industry leader, but others, such as Coca-Cola, failed and deserted their effort. Although the wine industry established strong footholds in Oregon and Washington, the state of California, with over nine-hundred wineries, remained the leading wine-producing state in the nation, accounting for 90 percent (444 million gallons) of all U.S. wine production at the end of the twentieth century. The industry in California organized itself into the Wine Institute, while wineries across the nation are represented by another trade association, the Association of American Vintners.

The trend toward superior table wines meant that during the 1980s and 1990s America saw a rise in small premium wineries that produced wines scoring higher than French wines in international competitions. American wine makers, moreover, no longer copied European wines; instead, they developed exceptional qualities of their own. Despite the blossoming of the American wine industry during the last quarter of the twentieth century, wine consumption failed to soar. This was partly attributable to the new temperance movement of the 1980s, which focused on drunk driving, alcohol-related birth defects, and alcohol advertising abuses. But another reason for sagging consumption rates was that Americans ceased drinking generous amounts of cheap wines and were drinking less, but more expensive, premium wines. Some wine producers, however, did experience a boom in another wine product during the 1980s when the wine cooler enjoyed a brief vogue. In the 1990s, scientific reports linking moderate wine consumption to good health bolstered a rising popularity for wine in America.

Bibliography

Barr, Andrew. Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1999.

Lukacs, Paul. American Vintage: The Rise of American Wine. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.

Pinney, Thomas. A History of Wine in America from the Beginnings to Prohibition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.

Wine Institute: The Voice for California Wine. Available at http://www.wineinstitute.org.

This entry includes five subentries:
Overview
Wine in the Ancient World
Wine from Classical Times to the Nineteenth Century
Wine in the Modern World
Wine, Nongrape

The naturally fermented juice of grapes, unless otherwise specified. More broadly, the term can include alcoholic beverages created from other fruits and even vegetables and grains. Such potables are usually specified with the name of the fruit, as in "apricot wine." Wine has a rich history that has evolved along with that of man. Its historical roots reach back almost 12,000 years. As various cultures spread out into new parts of the world, so did the grapevine and the art of winemaking. Today there are vineyards throughout the world with good wine being produced in far-ranging locations from the United States to South Africa to Australia to South America to Europe. Wine is broadly classified in the following categories: 1. still (nonsparkling) wines-including red, white, and rosé-which can be dry (nonsweet), semisweet, and sweet; 2. sparkling wines including French champagnes as well as effervescent wines from other parts of the world; 3. fortified wines (such as sherry, port and some dessert wines), which have been augmented with brandy or other spirit; and 4. Aromatic Wines, like vermouth which have been flavored with ingredients like herbs or spices. See also dealcoholized wines.

Description	Quantity	Energy (calories)	Carbs (grams)	Protein (grams)	Cholesterol (milligrams)	Weight (grams)	Fat (grams)	Saturated Fat (grams)
dessert	3.5 F oz	140	8	0	0	103	0	0
table, red	3.5 F oz	75	3	0	0	102	0	0
table, white	3.5 F oz	80	3	0	0	102	0	0

A cynical view of the world by Ambrose Bierce

n.

Fermented grape-juice known to the Women's Christian Union as "liquor," sometimes as "rum." Wine, madam, is God's next best gift to man.

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IN BRIEF: n. - A red as dark as red wine; Fermented juice (of grapes especially).

One of the disadvantages of wine is that it makes a man mistake words for thoughts. — Samuel Johnson

sign description: A W hand makes a small circular motion on the side of the cheek.

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Quotes:

"Wine is a part of society because it provides a basis not only for a morality but also for an environment; it is an ornament in the slightest ceremonials of French daily life, from the snack to the feast, from the conversation at the local caf? to the speech at a formal dinner." - Roland Barthes

"I may not here omit those two main plagues, and common dotages of human kind, wine and women, which have infatuated and besotted myriads of people. They go commonly together." - Robert Burton

"It is a maudlin and indecent verity that comes out through the strength of wine." - Joseph Conrad

"This wine is too good for toast-drinking, my dear. You don't want to mix emotions up with a wine like that. You lose the taste." - Ernest Hemingway

"Wine gives a man nothing. It neither gives him knowledge nor wit; it only animates a man, and enables him to bring out what a dread of the company has repressed. It only puts in motion what had been locked up in frost." - Samuel Johnson

"Wine makes a man better pleased with himself. I do not say that it makes him more pleasing to others... This is one of the disadvantages of wine, it makes a man mistake words for thoughts." - Samuel Johnson

See more famous quotes about Wine

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Wine

Dansk (Danish)
1.
n. - vin
v. tr. - beværte
v. intr. - drikke vin

idioms:

• wine and dine    beværte med en god middag

2.
v. intr. - danse mavedans

Nederlands (Dutch)
wijn, wijnkleurig

Français (French)
1.
n. - vin, lie-de-vin, bordeaux (couleur)
v. tr. - inviter qn dans un restaurant
v. intr. - boire du vin

idioms:

• new wine in old bottles    (faire) du neuf avec du vieux
• wine and dine    (se faire) inviter dans un bon restaurant
• wine bar    bar à vin

2.
v. intr. - danser la danse du ventre

Deutsch (German)
1.
n. - Wein, Weinrot
v. - Wein trinken, mit Wein bewirten

idioms:

• new wine in old bottles    neuen Wein in alte Schläuche füllen
• wine and dine    in großem Stil bewirten
• wine bar    Weinstube

2.
v. - mit Bewegungen der Beckenregion tanzen

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - κρασί, οίνος
v. - πίνω κρασί, ποτίζω (κάποιον)

idioms:

• wine and dine    τραπεζώνω

Italiano (Italian)
vino

idioms:

• wine and dine    banchettare

Português (Portuguese)
n. - vinho (m)
v. - beber vinho, servir vinho

idioms:

• wine and dine    jantar bem feito, comes e bebes

Русский (Russian)
(виноградное) вино, наливка, опьянение, темно-красный цвет, бордо, выпивать, угощать вином

idioms:

• wine and dine    потчевать, угощать на славу

Español (Spanish)
1.
n. - vino
v. tr. - convidar con vino
v. intr. - beber vino

idioms:

• new wine in old bottles    vino nuevo en el odre viejo
• wine and dine    agasajar a alguien
• wine bar    bar de vinos

2.
v. intr. - bailar meneando las caderas

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - vin, vinrött
v. - dricka vin, servera vin

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
葡萄酒, 酒, 请...喝酒, 喝酒

idioms:

• wine and dine    吃喝

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 葡萄酒, 酒
v. tr. - 請...喝酒
v. intr. - 喝酒

idioms:

• wine and dine    吃喝

한국어 (Korean)
1.
n. - 포도주, 과실주, 검붉은 빛
v. tr. - 포도주를 마시다, 포도주로 대접하다
v. intr. - 포도주를 마시다, 포도주로 대접하다

2.
v. intr. - 엉덩이 부분을 돌리면서 춤을 추다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - ワイン, 果実酒, ワインカラー
adj. - ワインカラーの
v. - ぶどう酒を飲む

idioms:

• fortified wine    強化ぶどう酒
• spirits of wine    酒精, 純アルコール
• wine and dine    大いにもてなす

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) خمر, نبيذ, شراب, اللون الأصهب (فعل) يبيع الخمر, يشرب الخمر‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮יין‬
v. tr. - ‮הגיש משקאות אלכוהוליים או כיבד בארוחה‬
v. intr. - ‮לגם משקה אלכוהולי או השתתף בסעודה‬
v. intr. - ‮רקד בתנועות סיבוביות קצובות של איזור האגן‬

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wine	Wine Coolers
Wine Bucket	Fourplay Wine