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Women in the military

 
Military History Companion: women in the military
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Of the many reasons the military developed as a male preserve, the first was human sexual dimorphism and the greater upper-body strength required to wield clubs and swords, to shoot an arrow with killing velocity, and to bear the weight of body armour. This is a sine qua non for relatively few tasks in the modern military. The second, emergent from this, was that women were prey, not predators, thus in time to be seen as part of the property men fought to preserve or to seize from the enemy. The modern cliché that rape is not a violent expression of sexuality but a sexual expression of violence is apposite. The third reason was the belief that women were naturally softer and gentler by nature, in fact a culturally defined assumption by no means common to all human societies over time. Western chivalry combined these factors, the putting of (upper-class) women on a pedestal going hand in hand with denying them freedom and the rights enjoyed by men. The fact that until very recently there could be no way of knowing who the biological father of a child might be has undoubtedly contributed to this.

This remained little changed until the 20th century, and especially its last three decades, during which time women's role in armed forces has become transformed. In many countries, from playing key roles in the non-combatant support arms and services (for example, during WW II), women now serve in an increasingly wide range of mainstream military jobs. These include combat roles in some air forces and navies, as illustrated by the employment of women combat pilots in the RAF and the USAF, and in the Royal Navy (which does not in any case distinguish combat from non-combat ships). However, there is still a powerful norm that women are excluded from the combat arms of armies; that is, the infantry, armour, and artillery (except in administrative supporting roles). Even in the USSR, where during WW II women played active roles as combat pilots, tank crew, and even in the highly specialized killing role of snipers, once the emergency was over the military reverted to using women primarily in supporting arms, as in the West.

This last example suggests that the driving force for women's full integration into the armed forces has been manpower shortage. This was an imperative for the USSR facing the German onslaught (although the Germans themselves were culturally inhibited from tapping into womanpower resources even at the bitter end), and remains a relative consideration for modern volunteer armies trying to recruit from a population that no longer greatly respects martial values. According to this argument, the reduction of standards of physical strength and endurance now required, for example, in the US armed forces, is not so much a function of ideologically suspect legislation as of a pragmatic need to find the numbers necessary to maintain institutions that have become just one bureaucracy among many. Despite the film GI Jane, not only are the units most likely to get involved in serious hand-to-hand fighting resistant to the admission of women, women themselves seem to find little attraction in military specializations that combine extremes of hardship in training with a higher probability of getting killed in war.

There remains a great variation among nations, even among the nations of NATO, in the extent to which women serve in the armed forces. In some countries women are excluded, or have limited involvement, as in Germany and Spain. In others all or almost all military positions (including, in some cases, those with direct combat functions) are open to them, as in Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, and, more recently, the USA and the UK. Women were still excluded from infantry and armour in the USA and the UK in 1999 and will remain so until the results of further study. Israel today still conscripts women but excludes them from combat operations. During the early Arab-Israeli wars, the IDF discovered not only that despite their gender-neutral training, women casualties caused whole units to cease operations while they were recovered, as well as disproportionate demoralization, but also that the knowledge that they were fighting against women decreased the willingness to surrender among bypassed enemy units.

This variety poses a number of questions such as why countries vary in their employment of women in the military, how exclusion or inclusion policies are justified, and how far the process of gender integration can be taken. In order to answer such questions one must first of all recognize that the military is a unique institution. The functional imperatives of war and military operations ensure that the armed forces stand apart from civilian society. The military is unique in the nature and extent of the demands it places upon its personnel. These include the obligation to train to kill and to sacrifice self; to participate in a military community where one works, lives, and socializes with other service personnel; and, when necessary, a 24-hour commitment with the risk of separation from family at short notice.

It is the obligation to kill while others are seeking to kill you and, if necessary, to sacrifice one's own life that has provided the main basis for limiting the widening of employment opportunities for women in the military to non-combatant roles or only to certain kinds of combat role. It is not simply that in combat roles one is exposed to the risk of death or injury by hostile fire—in modern warfare non-combatant support personnel will increasingly be exposed in this manner. Rather, in a combatant role—in a warship, combat aircraft, and in the infantry, armour, and artillery—one is required to engage the enemy with offensive fire. In the army there is a requirement to close with and kill the enemy in comparison with the greater ‘action at a distance’ characteristic of the other services. It is here that the barrier excluding women from the military is, in many countries, at its firmest.

In contrast, women's role as childbearers makes them givers not takers of life. Their physical weakness in comparison to men means that the latter have a comparative advantage in the field of combat, while women can play an equal role in other military occupations. Such arguments have not gone unchallenged, for they underestimate the extent to which the fighting qualities required of effective combat performance are not inherent in all men but need to be built up through training. Furthermore, some of the supposed physical weakness in women can be overcome through training and by recognizing the need to challenge the long-term impact of gender stereotypes about what is appropriate for men's and women's work (both in the military and other civilian occupations) inherited from the past. The cases of guerrilla armies and the employment of women in the Soviet armed forces show that in extremis women can and have served successfully in offensive land operations.

In reply to these claims, one can argue that in certain fields of combat (notably infantry warfare) the continuing physical demands are such as to be beyond all but a small minority of women who would have the capacity (and inclination) to pass the exacting standards required. It is a mistake to assume that the era of so-called ‘push-button warfare’ renders irrelevant the physical courage and strength rooted in traditional hand-to-hand combat skills on the battlefield, let alone the demands of the exhausting ‘24-hour warfare’ itself made possible by modern technology. By contrast, the different demands of naval and aerial warfare make it possible to train and employ both men and women. This is evident in the recent trends towards gender integration in surface ships of the Royal Navy and of pilots in the air forces of the UK, USA, and other countries.

However, the case for inclusion and exclusion of women from certain areas of military employment rests not only on an argument based on physical or psychological weakness. There is also a case to be made that women per se undermine the cohesion of previously all-male combat units. Thus even assuming their physical and psychological aptitude for combat roles, their presence will introduce sexual tensions in the group, either passively just by being there, or actively in competition for advancement by attracting the non-military favour of their NCOs and officers. This would undermine the effectiveness of the combat group or at the very least add a distraction and risk that a military commander could well do without. The matter of distinct hygiene and medical requirements may add somewhat to logistical demands, but is not significant outside this general consideration.

It would be foolish to believe that sexual tensions are unlikely to arise in gender-integrated military teams, not least because of the presence of young physically active people who are required to work in close contact with each other. These have been evident, for example, in ships' crews of both the US and UK navies. However, it would also be unwise to assume that discipline and working procedures cannot be devised to reduce these to a manageable level. In addition, there are other considerations to be taken into account when considering the employment of women in the military. Those countries which have, in recent years, widened employment opportunities for women in the armed forces sought to address male recruitment and retention difficulties by widening the pool of skilled labour from which they draw and for whose services they compete ever more intensely with other civilian employers. Given the success of females in educational performance there are good labour-market reasons to widen the military employment pool as far as is practicable (and this point applies not just to women but also other under-represented groups such as minority ethnic communities in the case of the UK). It has been argued that there are costs of relying more upon female personnel, for example their leaving the services to have children. However, others point out that these have to be offset by the costs accruing to employing males as, for example, in their rates of alcoholism and non-military injuries.

In addition to this ‘business case’ for widening employment opportunities for women, there are also considerations of equality and citizenship rights. The role of women in military and civilian employment has been transformed by changing conceptions of men's and women's work and the enforcement of women's (and other groups') claims for equality of opportunity through legislation. Yet in many countries it remains unclear whether public opinion is convinced that gender equality should be extended to all combat roles, especially the ‘teeth’ arms. This is even assuming that some females are technically able to perform them and that the combat effectiveness of the team would not suffer by their presence. The image of a woman engaged in bayonet practice is, rightly or wrongly, one that would still not command widespread public acceptance in the UK and the USA, for example. The issue of public acceptability is an important factor in the overall effectiveness of military operations. This is because of the capacity of the modern media to convey (often distressing) images of war—refugees, the opponent's civilian casualties, and one's own casualties—which can constrain political leaders to act or to withdraw from action.

It is not yet clear what the impact of significant female casualties would have on public opinion in the industrial democracies. However, it would be unwise to presume that this situation will not change especially now that women are in combat roles in other services. This is likely to lead to the view that, if women are to serve in any and all military employments, assuming they have volunteered to serve, then they should meet the same fitness standards and accept the same risks as their male counterparts. For the armed services of the industrial democracies citizenship trends, shortages of skilled manpower, and changing gender roles will lead to an increasing participation of women in the military. Much work still needs to be done to provide more flexible working conditions and to recognize that women are no longer prepared to place their own career second to that of their military partners. In the UK, it is likely that the remaining rules excluding them from the front-line positions will be removed, although whether this would, in fact, lead to more than a small minority of women with the inclination and ability to meet the standards demanded of infantry roles remains doubtful. Controversial issues connected with the training and working relations of gender-integrated units will remain.

Bibliography

  • Dandeker, Christopher, and Segal, M. W., ‘Gender Integration in Armed Forces: Recent Policy Developments in the United Kingdom’, Armed Forces and Society (Fall, 1996).
  • Gal, Reuven, A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (New York, 1989).
  • Moskos, C., Williams, J., and Segal, D. R., The Postmodern Military (Oxford, forthcoming).
  • —— and Wood, F. R., The Military: More than Just a Job (London, 1988).
  • O'Connell, Robert, Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons and Aggression (London, 1989)

— Christopher Dandeker

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US Military History Companion: Women in the Military
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The role of women in the U.S. military has changed significantly over the last 200 years, but the greatest change has come since the initiation of the All‐Volunteer Force in 1973. Throughout American history, the expansion of women's roles has come about when the military faced a shortage of male recruits, usually in times of war. Historically, women's participation has occurred mainly in medical and administrative support positions, thus releasing male soldiers from desk jobs to fight in combat. However, the excellent performance of women in support roles in combat zones during the 1980s and 1990s spurred extensive public debates about opening combat positions to women and about women's duties and rights as citizens. This debate focused attention specifically on the contribution women soldiers have made to military readiness and efficiency, rather than simply on the older notion that a woman's military role was to free up men to fight.

From the Revolutionary War to the present day, women have served in the armed forces. Until World War I, however, their roles—as laundresses or nurses, for example—were generally informal and seldom institutionalized. A handful of women disguised themselves as men and fought alongside male soldiers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In World War I, 21,000 women served in the U.S. Army and Navy Nurse Corps, and another 13,000 volunteered for clerical positions in the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. All except the nurses held a quasi‐military status and were discharged from active duty immediately after the war ended. At the outbreak of World War II, the shortage of military personnel led to the first large‐scale recruitment of women and the formation of the women's auxiliary military branches. During that war, more than 350,000 women served primarily in the medical and administrative fields, although the services also employed women as pilots, mechanics, truck drivers, gunnery instructors, and electricians. Women were not used in combat roles, but rather to fill support positions and thus release male soldiers for combat.

The end of World War II brought the demobilization of large numbers of servicemen and ‐women and a corresponding diminution in women's roles. In 1948, Congress passed the Women's Armed Services Integration Act, which provided the first ever legal basis for and legal limits to a permanent role for women in the military. Allowing for women to hold full military rank and privilege, the 1948 act also placed caps on women's enlistment and promotion, and excluded them from combat service. Women were not to exceed 2 percent of active duty personnel in each service and could not be promoted beyond lieutenant‐colonel or commander. The combat exclusion requirement remained more or less in effect into the late 1990s (aside from exceptions in the early 1990s for female pilots), but the enlistment and promotion ceilings were repealed in 1967, when the Department of Defense again needed to ease a recruitment deficit at the height of the unpopular Vietnam War. Coinciding with the expanding role of women in the labor force and calls for equal rights more broadly, women's participation in the services grew gradually over the next few years (in 1971, 1.6% of active duty personnel were women; in 1976, 5%), and the first women were promoted to general officers in 1970.

When the end of U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia resulted in the elimination of the draft in 1973 and the initiation of the All‐Volunteer Force, the military began planning how to recruit more women to compensate for expected shortages of qualified male volunteers. Congressional passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (1972), as well as a number of court rulings in favor of equal treatment across gender lines in the services, led to changes in personnel policies that allowed women to command units composed of both men and women; eliminated rules that required the automatic discharge of pregnant women soldiers; ended segregated training of male and female recruits; and equalized dependents' entitlements for married servicewomen and servicemen. In 1973, the first women naval aviators earned their wings (followed by women pilots in the army in 1974 and air force in 1977). In 1976, the first women cadets were admitted to service academies; in 1978, President Jimmy Carter signed a new law allowing navy women to be assigned to sea duty aboard noncombat ships.

During the 1990s, women participated in all major military deployments of U.S. forces, and some combat specialties opened up to them. In 1989, 800 women soldiers served among the 18,400 U.S. troops sent to Panama for Operation Just Cause. From August 1990 to February 1991, 41,000 military women were deployed to the Persian Gulf for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. In the Persian Gulf War, women constituted 7 percent of all U.S. military personnel deployed; 13 U.S. women were among the 375 U.S. soldiers who died, and 2 women were captured and held as prisoners of war. In April 1993, Air Force 1st Lt. Jeannie Flynn was the first woman to complete a combat training course to fly advanced fighter aircraft.

By 1996, 197,693 women were serving in the armed forces, constituting 13.4 percent of all active duty personnel. At the junior officer levels, women were represented relatively proportional to their numbers in the services. However, there remained a “glass ceiling” inhibiting promotion at the senior levels. In 1996, no women held three‐ or four‐star rank, and only 2 of the 277 two‐star officers and 14 of the 430 one‐star officers were women.

Media coverage in the 1990s led to increased public debate about the role of women in the armed forces. In arguing for equal treatment of all individuals in the military, some senior women military officers and liberal feminists, including Congresswoman Pat Schroeder of the Armed Services Committee, have pressed for opening combat roles to women as part of a larger program to give women full citizenship rights and responsibilities. Furthermore, women's advocates note that combat exclusion reinforces the glass ceiling that blocks promotion to the most senior ranks in a system that favors combat experience over support roles as a condition for advancement. Those opposing women's assignment to combat roles argue that combat effectiveness will be compromised because men will be more likely to defend their female colleagues than to destroy the enemy; that unit cohesion might be undercut by tensions between the sexes; and that the problem of pregnancy makes women soldiers not deployable in times of emergency. Some observers have suggested that the line between combat and noncombat roles will become increasingly arbitrary as support functions put women in the line of fire (as in the Persian Gulf) and as the armed forces prepare to fight noninfantry, high‐technology wars.

The issue of sexual harassment has caught public attention in recent years. Starting with the 1991 Tailhook Conference, at which at least 83 women were assaulted by drunken male navy fighter pilots, harassment scandals have rocked the services. In 1997, a number of female soldiers at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland alleged that their army drill instructors harassed them during their training. Subsequently, a sexual harassment hotline set up to field anonymous calls from women in the armed forces yielded hundreds of reports of abuse of rank and privilege by senior male noncommissioned officers and commissioned officers. The sexual harassment issue remains controversial as the armed forces attempt to establish fair procedures to adjudicate complaints in organizational environments hostile to change.

[See also Families, Military; Gender: Female Identity and the Military; Gender and War; SPARS; WAC; WAVES.]

Bibliography

  • Jeanne Holm, Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution, 1982; rev. ed. 1992.
  • Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the President, 1992.
  • Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? The Changing Face of the American Military, 1993.
  • Ruth H. Howes and Michael R. Stevenson, eds., Women and the Use of Military Force, 1993.
  • Laura Miller, Feminism and the Exclusion of Army Women from Combat, 1995.
  • Richard D. Fisher, et al., Keeping America Safe and Strong: Keeping the Armed Forces Focused on the Military Mission, 1996.
  • Office of the Secretary of Defense, Department of Defense Selected Manpower Statistics, Fiscal Year 1996, 1996
US History Encyclopedia: Women in Military Service
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Women have served in the U.S. military since the revolutionary war. Some 20,000 women were part of the semiofficial auxiliary Women in the Army during that war. Subjected to military discipline, they received half the pay of men, half the rations, and did not wear uniforms. They made and repaired the men's uniforms and served as cooks and nurses. Their chief combat role was to carry water to the artillery.

The Civil War and Spanish-American War

More than 10,000 women served as nurses and hospital administrators during the Civil War, including African Americans. Soon after the war began, the secretary of war appointed Dorothea Lynde Dix as superintendent of women nurses for the Union army. During the war she oversaw the work of 6,000 women. Clara Barton, another prominent volunteer nurse during the war, helped establish the American Red Cross. Some women joined units consisting of male officers and female volunteers to protect themselves and their property during the war. Some 400 fought for the Union army disguised as men, while 250 fought for the Confederacy. Nearly 1,500 women served as nurse volunteers during the Spanish-American War in 1898. At least sixteen died of typhoid or yellow fever. The war demonstrated the need for a permanent and professional nurse corps. As a result, the army surgeon general established the Nurse Corps Division in August 1898. On 5 February 1901, the Nurse Corps became a permanent part of the army. The navy followed suit in 1908.

World War I and World War II

During World War I, the navy created the Women's Reserve to release men for combat duty. Nearly 11,500 women served as clerk typists and administrators in the navy and marines. Of the 21,000 army nurses on active duty during World War I, about 10,000 served overseas. The army also brought 350 women to France to serve as bilingual communications specialists. Although they wore uniforms and were under military discipline they remained technically civilians. More than 33,000 women served during World War I, the majority with the Army Nurse Corps, and 400 died. Many were killed by the influenza epidemic that swept Europe, including thirty-six nurses. The army awarded three nurses the Distinguished Service Cross (its second highest combat award) and twenty-three the Distinguished Service Medal (the highest noncombat award). The navy awarded three nurses the Navy Cross (its second highest combat award) for their role in fighting the influenza epidemic. The governments of France and Great Britain decorated another 100 nurses. Although the Red Cross certified more than 1,800 African American nurses to serve during the war, the army did not assign any to active duty until after the armistice. Those that were called up were housed in segregated quarters and worked in an integrated environment.

World War II was the watershed for women in the military. The Army's Women's Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) was established in May 1942, while in July, the navy began recruiting women into Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service (WAVES). In September, the Women

Airforce Service Pilots (WASP), a quasi-military organization affiliated with the Army Air Forces, was organized, and in November, the Coast Guard formed the Women's Coast Guard Reserve (SPAR). The Marine Corps was the last to admit women, establishing the Marine Corps Women's Reserve (MCWR) in February 1943. On 1 July, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed new legislation, and the WAAC dropped its auxiliary status, becoming the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Almost 400,000 women served in uniform during the war. This included more than 150,550 WACs, 100,000 WAVEs, 76,000 army nurses, 23,000 female marines, 13,000 SPARs, and nearly 1,100 WASPs. Some 7,000 African American WACs and nurses also served, but in segregated units. Restricted from going overseas, they faced daily discrimination. African Americans were not accepted into the navy or Coast Guard until November 1944. Two hundred Puerto Rican women also served as WACs during the war. At their peak strength, some 271,000 women were in uniform, including 100,000 WACs.

Although the combat exclusion law was in effect, women were shot at, killed, wounded, and taken prisoner; 432 American military women were killed during World War II, including 201 army nurses, 16 as a result of enemy action. Another 88 were taken prisoner of war, all but one in the Pacific theater. More than 1,600 nurses were decorated for bravery under fire and meritorious service. Thirty-eight WASPs were killed while towing targets or ferrying or testing planes. The women who served were motivated by patriotism, religion, and a chance for adventure.

Despite their large numbers and immense contributions, only a handful of women were allowed to remain in the military after World War II, although with the Army-Navy-Nurse Act of 1947 and the Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, the women's services became a permanent, integral part of the U.S. military. The Women's Armed Services Integration Act, however, restricted the number of women to 2 percent of the total force and barred them from serving aboard navy combat vessels and from duty in combat aircraft. It also capped their rank at colonel with only one per service. Because the Coast Guard was not included in the bill, a few SPARs remained in the Women's Coast Guard Reserve. In 1949, the air force organized the Air Force Nurse Corps and Air Force Women's Medical Specialist Corps.

The Korean and Vietnam Wars

Women continued to make major strides in the military between World War II and the Korean War. In 1950, President Harry Truman appointed Anna Rosenberg the assistant secretary of defense for manpower and personnel in 1950. She served in that position until 1953. The beginning of the Korean War in June 1950 saw a small initial surge in the number of women in the military. By June 1951, there were 28,000 women serving in the military. The services, however, did not attempt to recruit women because there was a large pool of draft-eligible males. So, the increase in numbers was neither significant nor long term. In 1951, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall appointed the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS), consisting of fifty prominent women educators, civic leaders, and business and professional women, to assist the defense establishment in recruiting women for the armed services. When the cease-fire was signed on 27 July 1953, the Pentagon began a phase out, reducing the number of Americans in uniform, including women. In all, 120,000 women served during the Korean War.

Women volunteered in large numbers during the Vietnam War, and as the war progressed, they were assigned to wartime operational commands, serving in nontraditional fields such as intelligence, communications, and transportation. About 7,000 served and 7 were killed. In 1967, Congress removed the 2 percent ceiling on number and grade limitations and women became eligible for appointment to flag and general officer rank. In 1971, Colonel Jean Holm was selected as the first air force woman general, and the air force became the first service to allow pregnant women to remain in the service. It also changed recruiting rules to allow the enlistment of women with children. The other services soon followed suit. In 1973, the first women naval aviators received their wings, and three years later the first women army aviators received theirs. In 1976, the service academies began admitting women. The following year the first women air force pilots received their wings. In 1978, the Coast Guard removed all assignment restrictions based on gender.

From Grenada to the Persian Gulf and Beyond

The participation of women in military operations continued to grow during the military actions that followed Vietnam, and by the 1980s there were enough air force women flying to allow the formation of all-female crews. Some 170 women took part in Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada in 1983, including air force women in air transport crews. Later that year, 7 women were among the crews of the KC-135 tankers that refueled the F-111s that raided Libya. About 770 took part in Operation Just Cause in Panama in 1989. Women manned air force transport and refueling aircraft, a woman MP (Military Police) commanded troops in a firefight with Panamanian troops, and women army aviators came under fire for the first time. Three were awarded the Air Medal. Almost 41,000 women deployed to the Persian Gulf as part of Operations Desert Storm and Desert Shield in 1990– 1991. Thirteen were killed, including 5 army women, and 21 were wounded as the result of SCUD missile attacks, helicopter crashes, or mines. Two were taken prisoner. Women in the Persian Gulf War endured the same hardships as men, served for the same principles, and played a key role in the war's successful outcome.

In 1991, Congress repealed the combat exclusion law, leaving policies pertaining to women to the secretary of defense. In 1993, Secretary of Defense Les Aspin moved to eliminate many of the remaining restrictions on military women. He ordered all the services to open combat aviation to women, directed the navy to draft legislation to repeal the combat ship exclusion, and directed the army and Marine Corps to study opening new assignments to women. That same year, Sheila E. Widnall became the first woman secretary of the air force. In 1994, more than 1,000 women took part in military operations in Somalia. Four years later more than 1,200 women were deployed to Haiti for peacekeeping duties and the first Marine Corps women aviators received their wings. From 1995 to 2002, more than 5,000 women had served in peace-keeping operations in Bosnia.

A significant proportion of all U.S. military women are African American. Indeed, African Americans account for a considerably higher percentage of military women than of military men (30 percent versus 17 percent). In 2002, the army had the highest proportion of African American women (36 percent of female personnel) and the air force had the lowest (almost 25 percent). Hispanic women accounted for a lower population of the armed forces (10 percent) than of the general population (11 percent). The marines had the highest representation of Hispanic women (15 percent of its women), while the air force had the lowest (7 percent). Finally, almost 15 percent of military women were officers, the same ratio of officers to enlisted personnel among military men.

Bibliography

Feller, Lt. Col. Carolyn M., and Maj. Debra R. Cox. Highlights in the History of the Army Nurse Corps. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2000.

Friedl, Vicki L. Women in the United States Military, 1901–1995: A Research Guide and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996.

Holm, Jeanne. Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1995.

Morden, Bettie J. The Women's Army Corps, 1945–1978. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1990.

Poulos, Paula Nassen, ed. A Woman's War Too: U.S. Women in the Military in World War II. Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1996.

Putney, Martha S., When the Nation Was in Need: Blacks in the Women's Army Corps during World War II. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1992.

Seeley, Charlotte Palmer, Virginia C. Purdy, and Robert Gruber. American Women and the U.S. Armed Forces: A Guide to the Records of Military Agencies in the National Archives Relating to American Women. Washington, D.C: National Archives and Records Administration, 2000.

Treadwell, Mattie E. United States Army in World War II: The Women's Army Corps. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1991.

Women's Research and Education Institute. Women in the Military: Where They Stand. Washington, D.C.: Women's Research and Education Institute, January 1998.

Wikipedia: Women in the military
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 This article's citation style may be unclear. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external linking. (September 2009)
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Women in the military have a history that extends over 4000 years into the past, throughout a vast number of cultures and nations. Women have played many roles in the military, from ancient warrior women, to the women currently serving in conflicts, for instance the war in Iraq.

Despite various roles in the armies of past societies, the role of women in the military, particularly in combat, is controversial and it is only recently that women have begun to be given a more prominent role in contemporary armed forces. As increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues.

Contents

History

Ancient Era

Main article: Timeline of women in ancient warfare

Medieval Era (500-1500)

Main article: Timeline of women in Medieval warfare

Early Modern Era (1500-1750)

Main article: Timeline of women in early modern warfare

18th century

Main article: Women in 18th century warfare

19th century

Main article: Women in 19th century warfare

20th century

1900-1914

Main article: Women in warfare (1900-1914)

First World War

Main article: Women in the First World War

1918-1939

Main article: Women in warfare (1918-1939)

Second World War

A young female Partisan of the People's Liberation Army of Macedonia entering the city of Skopje.
Main article: Female roles in the World Wars

Post World War II

Main article: Women in warfare (1945-1999)

21st Century

Main article: Women in warfare (2000-present)

Contemporary debate

The role of women in combat has become a particularly contentious issue in contemporary militaries throughout the world. With the current exclusion of women from many combat roles seen by some as a form of sexual discrimination, an ongoing debate continues. Many on each side of the issue cite the alleged physical and mental differences of the two sexes, the effect of the presence of the opposite sex on the battlefield, and the traditional view of men as soldiers as arguments both for and against women being employed as soldiers under combat situations. The idea of having women in combat has been thrown around by several civilizations since early history. Some societies have chosen to not allow women to fight for their countries, while others have used women to fight in their wars as frequently as men, such as 800,000 women who served in the Soviet military during World War 2, of which nearly 70% saw front line action[1]. Women have been serving in the military in numerous support roles in several countries for many years. In modern wars, however, there may be no front line, and women, in such roles as military police providing convoy escort, or staffing checkpoints, have gotten into firefights as part of a mixed unit, Raven 42[2]. SGT Leigh Ann Hester, among other decorated soldiers in the Raven 42 unit, received the Silver Star, the third highest US combat decoration. While nurses under fire had received this award previously, Hester was the first woman to receive it for direct participation in combat.

Although women are recruited to serve in the military in most countries, only a few countries permit women to fill active combat roles. Countries that allow this include New Zealand, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Norway, Israel, Sweden and Switzerland. Other nations allow female soldiers to serve in certain Combat Arms positions, such as the United Kingdom, which allows women to serve in Artillery roles, while still excluding them from units with a dedicated Infantry role. The United States allows women in most combat flying positions.

The arguments

Several points of argument have been put forward by those in favor of women serving in combat conditions as well as those against the idea. Many of these arguments are focused on the physical differences between men and women, but also on differing mentalities, and the effects upon one sex by the presence of the other on the battlefield. Since very few countries employ a fully integrated military, there are few references able to prove or disprove the arguments below.

Physical concerns

One of the most obvious concerns regarding women in combat situations is the fact that, on average, female soldiers do not possess as much physical strength as their male counterparts. The female skeletal system is also less dense, and more prone to breakages.[3][4] There is also concern that, in aviation, the female body is not as adept at handling the increased g-forces experienced by combat pilots. Furthermore, health issues regarding women are argued as the reason vast majority of submarine services avoid accepting women, although mixed-gender accommodations in a small space is also an issue, as is explained in more depth below.[5] The Center for Military Readiness stated that “Female soldiers who are, on average, shorter and smaller than men, with 45-50% less upper body strength and 25-30% less aerobic capacity, which is essential for endurance”.[5]

However, an article in the Army Times July 29, 1996, states that some women do possess the physical attributes suitable to become combat soldiers.[6]

Psychological concerns

The disruption of a combat unit's esprit de corps is cited as another reason for women to be banned from front-line combat situations. Indeed, many soldiers have stated that they could not trust a woman to perform her duties in a place where trusting their fellow soldier would be critical.[6][7][2] There is a secondary concern that romantic relationships between men and women on the front lines could disrupt a unit's fighting capability and a fear that a high number of women would deliberately become pregnant in order to escape combat duties.[8][9] In the British Army, which continues to bar women from serving in infantry-roled units, all recruits joining to fill infantry vacancies partake in a separate training program called the Combat Infantryman's Course.

In the American armed forces, the 1994 rules forbidding female involvement in combat units of brigade size or smaller are being bent. Colonel Cheri Provancha, stationed in Iraq, argues that: "This war has proven that we need to revisit the policy, because they are out there doing it."[10]

A third argument against the inclusion of women in combat units is that placing women in combat where they are at risk of being captured and tortured and possibly sexually assaulted is unacceptable. In a Presidential Commission report it was found that male POWs, while being subject to physical abuse, were never subject to sexual abuse, and women were almost always subject to sexual abuse.[9] Rhonda Cornum, then a major and flight surgeon, and now a Brigadier General and Command Surgeon for United States Army Forces Command, was an Iraqi POW in 1991. At the time, she was asked not to mention that she had been molested while in captivity.[11] Cornum subsequently disclosed the attack, but said "A lot of people make a big deal about getting molested," she noted later, adding: "But in the hierarchy of things that were going wrong, that was pretty low on my list."

Finally, there is the argument that by not incorporating women into combat, the American government is failing to tap into another source of soldiers for military combat operations. This argument claims that the government is creating a military that treats women as second-class citizens and not equals of men.[12] Other observers state that without women, the military would have numerous manpower shortfalls they would not be able to fill.[13]

Sex discrimination and tradition

Many view the exclusion of women from military combat jobs as the last bastion of sex discrimination. Some believe that women are forbidden to serve in these roles only as a result of the traditionalist view of soldiering as a profession for men and that the equal opportunity laws should apply to the military. Many point out that there are many historical examples of women achieving much on the battlefield in combat roles.

In 2006, a female U.S. Coast Guardsman was the whistleblower for the several rapes in the United States Coast Guard and the four other military branches. She started a military rape crisis center, which has pushed for stricter laws to protect sexual assault victims.[14]

Tactical concerns

In On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Lt. Col. Dave Grossman briefly mentions that female soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces have been officially prohibited from serving in close combat military operations since 1948 (in 2001, subsequent to publication, women began serving in IDF combat units on an experimental basis). The reason for removing female soldiers from the front lines is no reflection on the performance of female soldiers, but that of the male infantrymen after witnessing a woman wounded. The IDF saw a complete loss of control over soldiers who apparently experienced an uncontrollable, protective, instinctual aggression.

Grossman also notes that Islamic militants rarely, if ever, surrender to female soldiers. In modern warfare where intelligence is perhaps more important than enemy casualties, every factor reducing combatants' willingness to fight is considered. Similarly, Iraqi and Afghani civilians are often not intimidated by female soldiers. However, in such environments, having female soldiers serving within a combat unit does have the advantage of allowing for searches on female civilians, and in some cases the female areas of segregated mosques, while causing less offense amongst the occupied population. A notable example of this would be female US military personnel who are specially selected to participate in patrols and raids for this purpose.

Melody Kemp mentions that the Australian soldiers have voiced similar concern saying these soldiers "are reluctant to take women on reconnaissance or special operations, as they fear that in the case of combat or discovery, their priority will be to save the women and not to complete the mission. Thus while men might be able to be programmed to kill, it’s is not as easy to program men to neglect women."[15]

Recent history of changes in women's roles by country

Australia

Main article: Women in the Australian military
Wing Commander Linda Corbould, the first woman to command a Royal Australian Air Force flying squadron, training in a USAF C-17 Globemaster III

The first women became involved with the Australian armed forces with the creation of the Army Nursing Service in 1899. Currently, women make up 12.8% of the Australian Defence Force (with 15.1% in the Royal Australian Air Force, 14.6% in the Royal Australian Navy and 10.5% in the Australian Army) and 17.5% of the reserves.[16] However, only 74% of the total number of available roles in the Australian armed forces are available to women. Despite this, using 1998-99 figures, the ADF had the highest percentage of women in its employ in the world.[17] In 1998 Australia became the second nation in the world to allow women to serve on its submarines.

Like many other countries, Australia does not permit women to serve in the following military positions involving 'direct combat', as defined by the 1983 Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW):

This is not to say that women can not serve in combat units or indeed at times in combat, but it does mean that they cannot serve in combat roles in combat units. So whilst a woman could not be an Royal Australian Armored Corps Driver/Signaller in an Armored unit such as 2 Cav Regt, they could serve as medic, storeman, RAEME tradesperson in 2 Cav Regt. Women in such roles undertake the same training and undertake the same jobs as their male counterparts. For example women medics were deployed to 5/7 RAR company patrol bases as part of the INTERFET force in East Timor.In 1975 women did train as Radio Operators with Royal Australian Signals Corps of which a few served in 2 Sig Regt which is a Field Force Unit.

Health and safety reasons also exclude women from surface finishing and electroplating within the Air Force due to the use of embryo-toxic substances. Australia was the second country to permit female crew on submarines, doing so in June 1998 on board Collins Class submarines. Australia's first deployment of female sailors in a combat zone was aboard HMAS Westralia in the Persian Gulf during the 1991 Gulf War.

In 1992, allegations of alleged sexual harassment on board HMAS Swan were investigated, and in 1998 similar allegations arose in the Australian Defence Force Academy.

Britain

Women joined the British Armed forces in all roles except those whose "primary duty is to close with and kill the enemy"; Infantry, Armour, Commando, Airfield Defence, Special Air Service or Special Boat Service. In addition medical reasons[citation needed] preclude service in the Royal Navy Submarine Service or as Mine Clearance Divers. They are however, permitted access to special force's support units, such as commando engineers and are cleared to join the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, a largely unknown branch of the United Kingdom Special Forces that does not bar women from joining.

Female personnel currently make up around 9% of the British armed forces.[18] However, female combatants can be found throughout Britain’s military history.[19]

An early example is Queen Boudica, who led warriors of the Iceni tribe against Roman forces occupying Britain around AD 62, her legacy being often quoted in support of arguments calling for the full opening up of the British Armed forces to women.

In the medieval period, Queens and noblewomen such as Ethelfleda of Mercia, Matilda of England, Isabella of France and Margaret of Anjou commanded armies in battle, although they did not fight themselves. Many women including Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine accompanied their husbands on Crusade. In the 16th century Mary Queen of Scots accompanied troops in several campaigns. Women continued to lead armies or organise the defense of castles in the absence of their male relatives until the close of the English Civil War. Charles I's consort, Henrietta Maria of France was the last English queen to command troops in battle in northern England in 1643.

During the 1776 American War of Independence, it is estimated that over 5000 women accompanied British forces. Many of these would have been the wives of high ranking officers with a large proportion being the wives of serving soldiers. While as much as possible women were left in the camp, they sometimes accompanied forces in their baggage trains serving as cooks or nurses, and were occasionally caught in combat and killed or taken prisoner. Similarly women accompanied men in ships of the Royal Navy, in combat being employed as powder monkeys or assisting surgeons.

During World War I the British Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps was formed; Lieutenant-General H Lawson recommended using it in France in 1917. Sir Neville Macready, the Adjutant-General, supported the idea that women and men should be treated the same at the front. Women served in the British Army during World War One as cooks, medical staff and clerical staff, however women were not permitted to be officers, and there were many disputes over pay. In 1917 the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) was formed, although then disbanded in 1919 It provided catering and administrative support, communications and electrician personnel.

Prior to World War II, in 1938 the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) was created, with 20,000 women serving in non-combat roles during the conflict as well as serving as military police. Some women took part in direct combat roles as part of mixed gender teams manning heavy anti-aircraft batteries and gun crews within Britain. Women members of the teams might sight and aim anti-aircraft guns and even give the command to fire, but the actual release of the trigger was always (officially at least) reserved for a male soldier. A number of women operated on active service in wartime Europe with special services, engaged in intelligence, sabotage and laison with local resistance groups. During the war, the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was incorporated into the ATS. The WRNS was reformed at the outbreak of war in 1939, with an increased range of shore-based opportunities available.

In 1949 women were officially recognized as a permanent part of British Armed forces, although full combat roles were still available only to men. In this year, the Women's Royal Army Corps was created to replace the WAAC, and in 1950 the ranks were normalised with the ranks of men serving in the British Army.

The 1991 Gulf War marked the first deployment of British women in combat operations since 1945. Women were engaged in a broad range of support operations up to 8km from the front line. In 1992 British Army units devoted only to women were disbanded, and women were distributed amongst the same units in which men served. During the 1990s an increasing number of roles were opened up to women including direct combat support roles in intelligence, artillery, engineering and signals.[20] In 1991 seagoing opportunities were opened to WRNS personnel leading to the full integration of the WRNS with the Royal Navy in 1993. To date several female personnel have commanded small ships of the RN and the current Commanding Officer of HM Naval Base, Clyde is a former WRNS Officer.

The seizure of Royal Navy sailor Faye Turney in 2007 by the naval forces of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard led to some media comment on the role of women and mothers in the armed forces.[21]

The commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces is a woman (Queen Elizabeth II) though her position is only nominal.

Canada

Private Lowry, CWAC, tightening up the springs on the front of her vehicle, Chelsea & Cricklewood Garage , England, 7 July 1944.

During the First World War, over 2300 women served overseas in the Canadian Army Medical Corps. Canadian women were also organized into possible uniformed home guard units, undertaking military training in paramilitary groups. During the Second World War, 5000 women of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps again served overseas, however they were not permitted to serve on combat warships or in combat teams. The Canadian Army Women's Corps was created during the Second World War, as was the Royal Canadian Air Force (Women's Division).As well, 45,000 women served as support staff in every theatre of the conflict, driving heavy equipment, rigging parachutes, and performing clerical work, telephone operation, laundry duties and cooking. Some 5,000 women performed similar occupations during Canada’s part in the Korean War of 1950-1953.

In 1965 the Canadian government decided to allow a maximum of 1,500 women to serve directly in all three branches of its armed forces, and the former "women's services" were disbanded. In 1970 the government created a set of rules for the armed forces designed to encourage equal opportunities. These included the standardization of enlistment criteria, equal pay and pensions, and allowing women to enroll in all aspects of the Canadian armed forces and making it possible for women to reach any rank. In 1974 the first woman, Major Wendy Clay, earned her pilot's wings in the newly integrated Canadian Forces, and four years later the first woman qualified for the Canadian skydiving demonstration team, the Skyhawks.

Between 1979 and 1985 the role of women expanded further, with military colleges allowing women to enroll. 1981 saw the first female navigator and helicopter pilot, and in 1982 laws were passed ending all discrimination in employment, and combat related roles in the Canadian armed forces were opened for women, with no restrictions in place, with the exception of the submarine service. In 1986 further laws were created to the same effect. The following years saw Canada’s first female infantry soldier, first female gunner, and a female Brigadier-General.

In 1990 the Ministers Advisory Board on Women in the Canadian Forces was created, and in 1994 Wendy Clay was promoted to Major-General. In 2000 Major Micky Colton became the first female to log 10000 flying hours in a C-130 Hercules. Women were permitted to serve on board Canadian submarines in 2002 with the acquisition of the Victoria-class submarine. Master Seaman Colleen Beattie became the first female submariner in 2003.

Canadian women have also become clearance divers, and commanded large infantry units and Canadian warships.

On May 17, 2006 Captain Nichola Goddard became the first Canadian woman killed in combat during operations in Afghanistan.

Denmark

Women were employed in the Danish armed forces as early as 1934 with the Ground Observer Corps, Danish Women’s Army Corps and Naval Corps in 1946 and the Women’s Air Force since 1953. In 1962 the Danish parliament passed laws allowing women to volunteer in the regular Danish armed forces as long as they did not serve in units experiencing direct combat. 1971 saw the enlistment of women as non-commissioned officers, with military academies allowing women in 1974.

In 1978, based on the reports of studies on the topic, women were allowed to enlist in an all areas of the Danish armed forces, with combat trials in the eighties exploring the capabilities of women in combat. In 1998 laws were passed allowing women to sample military life in the same way as conscripted men, however without being completely open to conscription. Women in the Danish military come under the command of the Chief of Defense.[22]

As of July 2009 the highest rank reached by a woman in the Danish armed forces is Colonel (Susanne Bach Bager, Telegrafregimentet), with 5,2% (832) women in the services, 153 officers, 176 NCOs, and 503 privates(not counting women serving as "concripts") [3]. From the summer 2007 to July 2009 a total of 84 women have served in the Danish Battalion in the Helmand provins in Afghanistan. This include frontline service in infantry units and active participation in combat. However recent recruitment of women has been low in Denmark due to rising job opportunities elsewhere. NATO reports also indicate that the Danish military does not promote women to positions of leadership.[22]

As with many nations with women in their armed forces, Denmark has different basic physical requirements for men and women in their armed forces, however the requirements for the more physically demanding jobs do not differ for either sex.

Eritrea

Female soldiers in Eritrea played a large role in both the Eritrean civil war and the border dispute with Ethiopia, because they make up more than 25% of the Eritrean military.

Finland

Female soldiers swearing their military oath alongside with male conscripts.

The Finnish Defense Forces does not conscript women. However, since 1995, women between 18 and 30 years of age have the possibility of voluntarily undertaking military service in the Defence Forces or in the Border Guard. Females serve under the same conditions as men, with the exception that during the first 45 days of service they have the option to leave the military without consequences. After that, they must complete the service which lasts 6, 9 or 12 months. After the service, the females face the same reserve obligations as the males who have done the obligatory military service. If the female in national service experiences a conscientious crisis which prevents her from fulfilling her military service or reserve obligations, she is ordered to the alternative civilian service, which lasts 12 months.[23]

All services and units in the Finnish Defence Forces and the Finnish Border Guard accept females. In garrison environment, the females are lodged in separate rooms and are given separate toilet and bath facilities. In exercises and aboard ships, women are lodged with men. The women in national service are given an extra allowance of €0,40 per diem for sanitary articles and smallclothes.[24] The females in military service are usually well motivated and some 60% of them receive either NCO or reserve officer training. Yearly, some 500 women complete the voluntary military service, while some 30.000 men complete the obligatory conscription.[25]

The women who have completed the voluntary military service are eligible for further military employment. If they have at least NCO training, they can apply for career NCO positions or for officer training. These career paths have been open since 1996, when the first women completed the military service. In 2005, 32 female career officers were in service. The number of female warrant officers was 16 and the number of female specialist officers 7. In comparison, there were a total of 2.584 officers and 894 specialist officers in service. The women made up about 16% of the total career NCO cadre. However, most of these career NCOs were grandfathered former female enlistees who had not undertaken military service.[26]

Members of Lotta Svärd in air control duty during the Continuation War

The history of women in the Finnish military is, however, far longer than just since 1995. During the Finnish Civil War, the Reds had several Naiskaarti (Women's Guard) units made of voluntary 16 to 35 year old women, who were given rudimentary military training. The reactions on women in military were ambivalent during the Civil War. The fighting women of the Reds were shunned in the White propaganda but in the Red side propaganda they were admired and also compared to the "amazons of old".[27] The White side founded their own female organization, Lotta Svärd in November 1918. While the Lottas were not front line fighting units per sé, as a paramilitary organization they handled several important second-line duties freeing men to the actual fighting service. A voluntary Lotta unit manned a searchlight battery of Finnish anti-aircraft artillery in defense of Helsinki in 1944.[28] After the Continuation War, Lotta Svärd was declared a "paramilitary organization" and absolved in 1944.[29]

In 1961, the Finnish Defence Forces started to enlist females for second-line duties. The duties available to women were radar operator, sea-control person, and C3 person. Most of the female enlisted served in coastal artillery and Finnish Air Force. The women enlisted all served in the rank of värvätty (enlisted), using a special female uniform.[30][31] In 1994, the female enlisted were given the same status as military persons as the male enlisted.[31] At the same time, the women who had undergone the voluntary military service received the possibility to be recruited for all military careers. In the beginning of the year 2007, the term enlisted (värvätty) was changed to NCO (aliupseeri) to better recognize the change in the duties of this personnel group. The female enlistees who had not undertaken military service were grandfathered. They remain in the rank of enlistee unless they complete the conscript NCO course. [32][33]

Female Red Guard soldier from Finnish Civil War

The non-combat duties in Finnish Defence Forces peace-keeping operations opened to women in 1991. At first, the women without previous military training experienced rather large problems in the Finnish peace-keeping units, most remarkably in the Republic of Macedonia in mid-1990s. Since the introduction of the voluntary military service, the women have mostly the same training as the men which has lessened the problems. Only a handful of women without military training, mostly nurses or social service personnel, are serving with the Finnish peace-keeping forces. All duties in Finnish foreign operations are open to women, provided they have the necessary military training.[34][35]

France

A recent study (December 2006[36]) shows that women represent 19% of all French military personnel. They are allowed to serve in all posts (excluding combat infantry), except submarines and riot control gendarmerie. However, they still represent a small part of the personnel in the following specialties: combat, security, mechanics, especially within the infantry and marines (only 337 - 1.7% - combat infantry soldiers and 9 - 0.4% - marines are female).

Germany

Since the creation of the Bundeswehr in 1955, Germany had employed one of the most conservative gender-policies of any NATO country. That was generally regarded as a reaction to the deployment of young women at the end of World War II. Though women were exempt from direct combat functions in accordance with Nazi-ideology, several hundred thousand German women, along with young boys and sometimes girls (as Flakhelfer), served in Luftwaffe artillery units; their flak shot down thousands of Allied warplanes[37]

In the year 1975 the first female medical officers were appointed in the Sanitätsdienst of the Bundeswehr. Since 1994, two women attained the rank of Generalarzt. But it was not until January 2001 that women first joined German combat units, following a court ruling by the European Court of Justice. The change in the law was prompted after a female electrician argued her case to the European Court of Justice. The court ruled that preventing women from occupying combat roles in the armed forces was against sexual equality principles. 244 of the first 1,900 women who signed up following the law change were admitted on the first day of the new rules, the majority of them joining the army and air force[38]. There are no restrictions regarding the branch of service, and there are women serving in the Fallschirmjäger, aboard U-Boats and Tornado fighter planes. Before the law change 4,400 women only occupied medical or musical roles within the German armed forces. The new legislations initially did not receive full military support. A report on the subject commented that, regarding the older male soldiers, "The way they see themselves as male fighters is shattered". Like many countries who have accepted women into combat roles, Germany conducts special courses on preventing sexual harassment[38].

After several years of experience the commotion inside the Bundeswehr has now remarkably decreased. Today women are regularly being sent to foreign deployments[39]. As of April 2008 about 15,200 female soldiers serve in the Bundeswehr, representing a share of 8 percent of all troops except conscripted soldiers. The German Bundeswehr now expects the percentage of all female personnel to rise to about 15 percent in the middle-term future.[40]

It was recently released that the first woman in the German air force received her jet fighter licence.[41] A handful more are flying helicopters and transport planes.

Israel

Some women served in various positions in in the IDF, including infantry, radio operators and transport pilots in the 1948 war of independence and "Operation Kadesh" in 1956, but later the Air Force closed its ranks to female pilots, and women were restricted from combat positions. There is a draft of both men and women. Most women serve in non-combat positions, and are conscripted for two years (instead of three for men). A landmark high court appeal in 1994 forced the Air Force to accept women air cadets. In 2001, Israel's first female combat pilot received her wings. In 1999 the Caracal company was formed, as a non segregated infantry company. In 2000 it was expanded into a Battalion (called The 33rd, for the 33 women killed in combat during the War of Independence) since then, further combat positions have opened to women, including Artillery and Field Intelligence.

Libya

The 200-strong unit is Colonel Kadaffi's personal bodyguard and is called variously the "Green Nuns" and "The Amazonian Guard" or more commonly in Libya The Revolutionary Nuns (Arabic: الراهبات الثوريات‎) .[42]

New Zealand

New Zealand has no restrictions on roles for women in its defence force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation.

Nepal

It is worth noting that Peoples Liberation Army, the armed forces of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have a 30% female participation quota for their combat forces, and frequently claim 40% actual participation.[43] A proposal of a 40% female combat troop quota in the future Nepal Army has been frequently forwarded publicly by Maoist leaders during their peace negotiations with the current government.

Norway

Women in Norway have been able to fill military roles since 1938, and during the Second World War both enlisted women and female officers served in all branches of the military. However in 1947 political changes commanded that women only serve in civilian posts, with reservists allowing women to join them in 1959.

Between 1977 and 1984, the Norwegian Parliament passed laws expanding the role of women in the Norwegian Armed Forces, and in 1985 equal opportunities legislation was applied to the military. Norwegian women are permitted to serve on a voluntary basis, however in the event of national mobilization they will be under the same pressures as men. However, women who have not undergone military training will not be asked to serve in a military capacity, but rather in a civilian capacity.

In 1995, Norway became the first country to allow women to serve on its military submarines, and to this date there has been at least one female commander of a Norwegian submarine.[44] The first was Solveig Krey in 1995.[45]

The Norwegian government has set a target of 15% of their armed forces to consist of women by 2008, from the 2006 value of 6.6%.[46] This aim is accompanied by efforts to increase the awareness of sexual exploitation and gender issues within the armed forces. All women between 18-20 are given the opportunity to attend national conscription selection.

As of 2006, the number of women having the military as a career - as opposed to women volunteering for military service as conscripts - was as follows[citation needed]:

  • Army 132
  • Navy 115
  • Air force 83
  • Home Guard 13
  • Logistics 111

The highest rank currently attained by a woman in the Norwegian armed forces is that of Rear Admiral[47].

Poland

Women have taken part in the battles for independence against occupiers and invaders since at least the time of the Napoleonic Wars. During the occupation by the Nazis, 1939-1945, several thousand women took part in the resistance movement as members of the Home Army. The Germans were forced to establish special prisoner-of-war camps after the Warsaw Rising in 1944 to accommodate over a thousand women prisoners[48].

In April 1938 the law requiring compulsory military service for men included provisions for voluntary service of women in auxiliary roles, in the medical services, in the anti-aircraft artillery and in communications. In 1939 a Women's Military Training Organization was established under the command of Maria Wittek.

In present Poland a law passed April 6, 2004 requires all women with college nursing or veterinary degrees to register for compulsory service. In addition it allows women to volunteer and serve as professional personnel in all services of the army. As of June 30, 2007 there are 800 women in the army, of which 471 are officers, 308 non-commissioned officers and 21 other ranks, in addition 225 are in military training schools[49].

Soviet Union

Women had the legal right to serve in the Soviet Armed Forces throughout the post Second World War period, with many all-female units existing as far back as World War One. By the early 1990s, 100,000 women made up 3% of the Soviet Armed Forces.

Lyudmila Pavlichenko

During the Second World War, the Soviet Union had a female military strength of over one million women[4] who served as snipers, machine gunners, and tank crew members. Very few of these women, however, were ever promoted to officers.

In 1942 the Soviet Union formed three regiments of women combat pilots to fly night bombing missions over Germany, the 588th Night Bomber Regiment, later called the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment. These women took part in regular harassment bombing against the Germans in Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes, and participated in the final onslaught against Berlin. The regiments, collectively known to the Germans as the "Nachthexen" ("Night Witches"), flew more than 24,000 sorties and won in total 23 Hero of the Soviet Union medals. Some of the most talented women pilots were assigned day fighter duties. "Lily" Litvak and Katya Budanova became fighter aces flying the Soviet Union's best fighter designs alongside men in day attacks. Both were killed in their aircraft. Meanwhile, in the ground combat role Lyudmila Pavlichenko, made 309 confirmed kills including 36 enemy snipers. Pavlichenko was one of the many female snipers of the Soviet Army.

In 1967, the Soviet Universal Military Duty Laws concluded that women offered the greater source of available combat soldiers during periods of large scale mobilisation. Thus, several programs during the height of the cold war were set up to encourage women to enlist. Participation in military orientated youth programs and forced participation in the reserves for ex-servicewomen up to the age of 40 are some examples. Universities contained reservist officer training which accompanied a place in the reserves themselves.

In the Soviet Union civil universities, in addition to professional education, gave basic military training to the youth of both sexes. Many secondary schools in post-Soviet countries still have defense lessons, both for boys and girls.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) was the first service of the Sri Lankan military to allow women to serve, accepting female recruits to the Sri Lanka Volunteer Air Force in 1972. The Sri Lanka Army followed in 1979 with the establishment of the Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps (SLAWC). Since then, each service has for both administrative and practical reasons maintained separate units for women. These are the SLAWC and the SLAF Women's Wing; the Sri Lanka Navy does not have a specific name for women's units. In order to maintain discipline, all three services have women MPs attached to their respective military police/provost corps.

Currently, female personnel of all three services play an active part in ongoing operations. However, there are certain limitations in 'direct combat' duties such as special forces, pilot branch, naval fast attack squadrons. These are only a few restrictions; female personnel have been tasked with many front line duties and attached to combat units such as paratroops, SLAF Regiment, as well as undertaken support services such as control tower operators, electronic warfare technicians, radio material teletypewriters, automotive mechanics, aviation supply personnel, cryptographers, doctors, combat medics, lawyers, engineers and aerial photographers. In the Sri Lanka Navy female personnel were at first limited to the medical branch, however currently both lady officers and female rates are able to join any branch of service including the executive branch. With the escalation of the Sri Lankan civil war, many female personnel have come under enemy fire both directly and indirectly thus taking many casualties including fatalities. As of 2008 there were three female officers of the rank of Major General and one Commodore.

The Sri Lanka Civil Defence Force, formerly the Sri Lanka Home Guard, has been open to women recruits since 1988. In 1993, these guardswomen were issued firearms and deployed to protect their home towns and villages against attacks by LTTE. As a result, there have been many casualties (including fatalities) from attacks.

Russia

During the First World War, heavy defeats led to the loss of millions of Russian Imperial soldiers. To psychologically energize morale Alexander Kerensky (leader of Russia of the Russian Provisional Government) ordered the creation of the Woman’s Death Battalion in May 1917. After three months of fighting, the size of this all-female unit fell from 2,000 to 250.[50] In November 1917, the Bolsheviks dissolved the unit. Shortly after Russia became part of the Soviet Union (see above for the role of woman in Soviet military) till December 1991.

The current tally of woman in the Russian Army is standing at around 115,000 to 160,000, representing 10% of Russia’s military strength.

The Russian army runs the Miss Russian Army beauty contest for attractive female Russian soldiers. Colonel Gennady Dzyuba, of the Defense Ministry, said of the 2005 contest that "Those who have served, especially in hot spots, know the importance of women in the armed forces.”

Sweden

Since 1989 there are no gender restrictions in the Swedish military on access to military training or positions. They are allowed to serve in all parts of the military and in all positions, including combat. [51]

Thailand

Thailand has recently begun recruiting and training women to conduct counter-insurgency operations.[52] A ranger commander said that when women are protesting, "It is better for women to do the talking. Male soldiers look tough and aggressive. When women go and talk, people tend to be more relaxed."

Turkey

When Turkish history is examined, it is apparent that Turkish women have voluntarily taken tasks in the defence of their country, showing the same power and courage as men. Nene Hatun, whose monument has been erected in the city of Erzurum (Eastern Turkey) because of her gallant bravery during the Ottoman-Russian War, constitutes a very good example of this fact. Furthermore, the Independence War has taken its place in history with the unsurpassed heroism of Turkish women.[53] Sabiha Gökçen was the first female combat pilot in the world, as well as the first Turkish female aviator. She was one of the eight adoptive children of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Throughout her career in the Turkish Air Force, Gökçen flew 22 different types of aircraft for more than 8,000 hours, 32 hours of which were active combat and bombardment missions. She was selected as the only female pilot for the poster of "20 Greatest Aviators in History" published by the United States Air Force in 1996.[54]

Women personnel are being employed as officers in the Turkish Armed Forces today. The women officers serve together with the men under the same respective chains of command. The personnel policy regarding women in the Turkish Armed Forces is based on the principle of "needing qualified women officers in suitable branches and ranks" to keep pace with technological advancements in the 21st century. Women civilian personnel have been assigned to the headquarters staff, technical fields, and social services without sexual discrimination. Women officers serve in all branches except armour, infantry, and submarines. Assignments, promotions and training are considered on an equal basis with no gender bias.[53]

As of the year 2005, the number of the female officers and NCOs in the Turkish Armed Forces is 1245.[55]

Ukraine

Female Soviet partisans operating in Ukraine during World War II

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the declaration of Ukrainian independence in 1991 Ukraine established its own army (see above for the role of woman in Soviet military).

In March 2008, 50000 women were serving and working in the Ukrainian army. Most of them are working in the medical service, liaison and accounting. Others in medical services, liaison, accounting. The Ukrainian army has four female colonels.

During March 2008 119 girls where studying at military institutions of Ukraine, while many secondary schools still have defense lessons, both for boys and girls (an old Soviet education relic).

Currently about 18,000 women work in actual service (80% on contract, 12.6% warrant officers, 6.4% officers, among them 4 colonels):

  • Land troops: 7,000 women
  • air forces: 6,500 women
  • air defense 300 woman
  • in the Command Centre of Ukrainian Navy, a female Captain-Lieutenant is senior aide to the duty officer and a lady captain, Captain III rank, heads the Chief Command Information Station.

Ukraine's peacemaking operations have involved 27 women. The first of them, SL Valeria Parada, was awarded a medal of the UNO.

United States

Two female American soldiers

The first American woman soldier was Deborah Sampson of Massachusetts. She enlisted as a Continental Army soldier under the name of "Robert Shurtliff". She served for three years in the Revolutionary War and was wounded twice; she cut a musket ball out of her own thigh so no doctor would find out she was a woman. Finally, at the end of the hostilities her secret was discovered—even so, George Washington gave her an honorable discharge. She later lectured on her experiences and became a champion of women's rights.

During the Civil War, Sarah Rosetta Wakeman enlisted under the alias of Private Lyons Wakeman. She served in the 153rd Regiment, New York State Volunteers. Her complete letters describing her experiences as a female soldier in the Union Army are reproduced in the book, An Uncommon Soldier: The Civil War Letters of Sarah Rosetta Wakeman, alias Pvt. Lyons Wakeman, 153rd Regiment, New York State Volunteers, 1862-1864.[56]

In the history of women in the military, there are records of female U.S. Revolutionary and Civil War soldiers who enlisted using male pseudonyms, but a letter written by Annie Oakley to President William McKinley on on April 5, 1898 may represent the earliest documentary proof of a political move towards recognizing a woman's right to serve in the United States military. Annie Oakley, Sharpshooter and star in the Buffalo Bill Show, wrote a letter to President William McKinley on April 5, 1898 "offering the government the services of a company of 50 'lady sharpshooters' who would provide their own arms and ammunition should war break out with Spain."[57]. The Spanish-American War did occur, but Oakley's offer was not accepted.

The Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps was established in the United States in 1941. However, political pressures stalled the waylaid attempts to create more roles for women in the American Armed Forces. Women saw combat during World War II, first as nurses in the Pearl Harbor attacks on December 7, 1941. The Woman’s Naval Reserve and Marine Corps Women’s Reserve were also created during this conflict. In July 1943 a bill was signed removing ‘auxiliary’ from the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, making it an official part of the regular army. In 1944 WACs arrived in the Pacific and landed in Normandy on D-Day. During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16 Navy nurses were captured and spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war. There were 350,000 American women who served during World War Two and 16 were killed in action; in total, they gained over 1,500 medals, citations and commendations.

Virginia Hall, serving with the Office of Strategic Services, received the second-highest US combat award, the Distinguished Service Cross, for action behind enemy lines in France. Hall, who had one artificial leg, landed clandestinely in occupied territory aboard a British Motor Torpedo Boat.

After World War Two, demobilization led to the vast majority of serving women being returned to civilian life. Law 625, The Women's Armed Services Act of 1948, was signed by President Truman, allowing women to serve in the armed forces in fully integrated units during peace time, with only the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the Korean War of 1950–1953 many women served in the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals, with women serving in Korea numbering 120,000 during the conflict.

Airman 1st Class, Ashley Gonzalez of the United States Air force.

Records regarding American women serving in the Vietnam War are vague. However, it is recorded that 600 women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along with 500 members of the WAC, and over 6000 medical personnel and support staff.

The Ordnance Corps began accepting female missile technicians in 1974,[58] and female crewmembers and officers were accepted into Field Artillery missile units.[59][60]

In 1974, the first six women aviators earn their wings as Navy pilots: Jane Skiles O'Dea, Barbara Allen Rainey, Rosemary Bryant Mariner, Judith Ann Neuffer, Ana Marie Fuqua, and Joellen Drag. The Congressionally-mandated prohibition on women in combat places limitations on the pilots' advancement,[61] but at least two retired as captains.[62]

America’s involvement in Grenada in 1983 saw over 200 women serving; however, none of these took part in direct combat. Some women, such as Lt Col Eileen Collins or Lt Celeste Hayes, flew transport aircraft carrying wounded or assault teams, however they were not deemed to have been in direct combat. Several hundred women also took part in operations in Panama in 1989, though again in non-combat roles.

December 20, 1989, Capt Linda L. Bray, 29, became the first woman to command American soldiers in battle, during the invasion of Panama. She was assigned to lead a force of 30 men and women MPs to capture a kennel holding guard dogs that was defended by elements of the Panamanian Defense force. From a command center about a half-mile from the kennel she ordered her troops to fire warning shots. The Panamanians returned fire until threatened by artillery attack, fleeing into nearby woods. Bray advanced to the kennel to try to stop them, using the cover of a ditch to reach the building. No enemy dead were found, but a cache of weapons was recovered.

The 1991 Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the role of women in the American Armed forces to come to the attention of the world media. A senior woman pilot at the time, Colonel Kelly Hamilton, commented that "[t]he conflict was an awakening for the people in the US. They suddenly realised there were a lot of women in the military." Over 40,000 women served in almost every role the armed forces had to offer. However, while many came under fire, they were not permitted to participate in deliberate ground engagements. Despite this, there are many reports of women engaging enemy forces during the conflict [5].

From 2005, the first all female C-130 Hercules crew to serve a combat mission for the U.S. Air Force.[63]

Today, women can serve on American combat ships, including in command roles. However women are not permitted to serve on submarines or to participate in special forces programs such as Navy SEALs. Women enlisted soldiers are barred from serving in Infantry, Special Forces, Artillery, Armor, and Air Defense Artillery, however female enlisted members and officers can hold staff positions in every branch of the Army except infantry and armor. Women can however serve on the staffs of infantry and armor units at Division level and above, and be members of Special Operations Forces. Women can fly military aircraft and make up 2% of all pilots in the U.S. Military. So far the position closest to combat open to women in the U.S. Army are in the Military Police, where women man machine-guns on armoured Humvees, guarding truck convoys. Although Army regulations bar women from infantry assignments, some female MPs are detailed to accompany male infantry units to handle search and interrogation of Iraqi suspects.

Jessica Lynch after being rescued in 2003

The case United States v. Virginia, in which the Supreme Court ordered that the Virginia Military Institute allow women to register as cadets, gave women soldiers a weapon against laws which (quoting J. Ruth Bader Ginsburg) “[deny] to women, simply because they are women, full citizenship stature—equal opportunity to aspire, achieve, participate in and contribute to society.”

In 2003, American soldier Jessica Lynch was captured while serving in Iraq. When surrounded by Iraqi soldiers, she attempted to defend herself, but her M-16 jammed. In the same action, Lori Piestewa, a U.S. soldier, died after driving her Humvee through enemy fire in an attempt to escape an ambush, earning a Purple Heart. She had just rescued Jessica Lynch, whose vehicle had crashed.

Also in 2003, Major Kim Campbell was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for landing her combat damaged A-10 Thunderbolt II with no hydraulic control and only one functional engine after being struck by hostile fire over Baghdad.

In a recent scandal, U.S Army Reservists Lynndie England and Sabrina Harman were convicted by court martial of cruelty and maltreatment of prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison.

SGT Leigh Ann Hester, awarded the Silver Star for direct combat

SGT Leigh Ann Hester became the first woman to receive the Silver Star, the third-highest US decoration for valor, for direct participation in combat. Female medical personnel had been awarded the same medal, but not for actual combat. She was a team leader of Raven 42, a Military Police squad that broke up an ambush roughly three to four times its strength. Specialist Ashley Pullen received the Bronze Star. The squad leader, SSG Timothy Nein, had originally received the Silver Star, but his award was later upgraded to the Distinguished Service Cross. SGT Jason Mike, the unit's medic, also received the Silver Star.

In Afghanistan, Monica Lin Brown, was presented the Silver Star for shielding wounded soldiers with her body, and then treating life-threatening injuries.[64] As of November 2008, the U.S. military has only one woman, Ann E. Dunwoody, with the rank of four-star general.[65]

Women on submarines

 This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page. (March 2008)

Following the advent of submarine warfare the majority of submarine operators do not allow female personnel to serve in submarines as a matter of course.[citation needed] Stated justifications include the fact that doses of radiation from nuclear submarine reactors can result in infertility, since women do not continually produce eggs as men do with sperm. Also, the finite amount of space available on submarines limits the ability to offer separate berths and lavatories for females. Female sailors are permitted on most other naval ships because they are typically larger than submarines, offering more space to accommodate females.[citation needed]

The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy in the world to permit female personnel to serve in submarines, appointing a female submarine captain in 1995,[66] followed by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) in 1998 and thereafter Canada and Spain,[67] all operators of conventional submarines.

Social reasons include the need to segregate accommodation and facilities, with figures from the US Navy highlighting the increased cost, $300,000 per bunk to permit women to serve on submarines versus $4,000 per bunk to allow women to serve on aircraft carriers.[68]

The US Navy allows three exceptions for women being on board military submarines: (1) Female civilian technicians for a few days at most; (2) Women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for both Navy ROTC and Naval Academy; (3) Family members for one-day dependent cruises. [69]

US Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus stated October 8, 2009 that allowing women to serve on submarines is "an idea whose time has come" - and he said he sees no big hurdles to making it happen. Mabus has given no timeline for when women could begin serving, saying several steps must first be taken. They include devising an implementation process, notifying Congress of the plan and having the prospective female submariners complete the required nuclear training. [70]

Portrayals in popular culture

Further information: List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture

There have been a number of significant representations of "women warriors" in popular culture, occasionally including women in the military, such as the film G. I. Jane.

Notes

  1. ^ Women Warriors Throughout History, 20th Century, battles, tournaments, soldier, revolutionary, war, pirate, duel, fighter, female, lady, disguise, martial arts, historical re-enactment, living history, Lothene Experimental Archaeology
  2. ^ a b Soucy, John (February 5, 2007), Heroes Turn Out for Exhibit Opening at Army Women's Museum, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=2937, retrieved 2007-12-03 
  3. ^ Effect of Isokinetic Strength Training and Deconditioning on Bone Stiffness, Bone Density and Bone Turnover in Military-Aged Women
  4. ^ Stress Fractures in Female Army Recruits: Implications of Bone Density, Calcium Intake, and Exercise - Cline et al. 17 (2): 128 - Journal of the American College of Nutrition
  5. ^ a b Women in Combat: Frequently Asked Questions, Center for Military Readiness, November 22, 2004, http://www.cmrlink.org/WomenInCombat.asp?DocID=237 
  6. ^ a b Women in the Military: Combat Roles Considered
  7. ^ Women in Combat
  8. ^ Facts about women in combat elude the right
  9. ^ a b Center for Military Readiness | Women in Combat
  10. ^ For Female GIs, Combat Is a Fact
  11. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. (NY Times) (April 25, 2003). "A Woman's Place". http://www.ambrosiasw.com/forums/index.php?s=ec38e9ce59c7388c185485da75495be7&showtopic=40740. 
  12. ^ Congresswoman Louise M. Slaughter: Remarks on Women in Combat
  13. ^ American Thinker: Another Clinton legacy
  14. ^ www.stopmilitaryrape.org
  15. ^ Women in Action (3:1999) | Femme Fatale: Women in the Military Service - Melody Kemp
  16. ^ women armed
  17. ^ women armed
  18. ^ Defence Factsheet, Women in the Armed Forces
  19. ^ BBC news article on Women in Combat, retrieved on March 29, 2007
  20. ^ Rachel Woodward, Trish Winter, Sexing the soldier: the politics of gender and the contemporary British Army, Routledge, (2007) pp. 33-35
  21. ^ "Only the capture of Prince Harry could have done more damage". The Independent. 2007-04-01. http://comment.independent.co.uk/commentators/article2411286.ece. Retrieved 2007-04-04. 
  22. ^ a b NATO/IMS: Committee on Women in the NATO Forces: Denmark
  23. ^ Law on the voluntary military service for women (194/1995) (Finnish) Retrieved 2-20-2007
  24. ^ Finnish Defence Forces. Naiset armeijassa. (Finnish) Retrieved 2-20-2007
  25. ^ Finnish Defence Forces. Naiset voivat hakea kaikkiin joukko-osastoihin. (Finnish) Retrieved 2-20-2007
  26. ^ Finnish Defence Forces. Puolustusvoimien henkilöstötilinpäätös 2005, pp. 10–11 (Finnish) Retrieved 2-20-2007
  27. ^ Hakala, A. Naissoturin muotokuva. Turun yliopisto. Retrieved 3-9-2007. (Finnish)
  28. ^ Valonheitinlotat - ainutlaatuinen osa historiaa. Ruotuväki 19/2004. Päivi Hautalahti. Retrieved 3-9-2007.(Finnish)
  29. ^ Lotta Svärd -järjestön lakkauttaminen. Syvärannan lottamuseo. Retrieved 3-9-2007 (Finnish)
  30. ^ Sotilasammattiliitto SoAL ry. Naisten virkapuvut. Retrieved 10-2-2007. (Finnish)
  31. ^ a b Sotilasammattiliitto SoAL ry. Värvätyistä sotilasammattihenkilöiksi. Retrieved 10-2-2007. (Finnish)
  32. ^ Aliupseerit: Sotilasammattihenkilöistä aliupseereiksi. Finnish Defence Forces. Retrieved 10-2-2007. (Finnish)
  33. ^ [Puolustusvoimat perustaa aliupseeriston vuoden 2007 alusta]. Finnish Defence Forces. Retrieved 10-2-2007. (Finnish)
  34. ^ Naisista tasa-arvoisia rauhanturvaajia. MTV3 news service. Retrieved 2-10-2004. (Finnish)
  35. ^ Naiset rauhanturvatehtäviin vapaaehtoisen asepalveluksen kautta. Finnish Defence Forces 2004. Retrieved 10-2-2007.. (Finnish)
  36. ^ SGA
  37. ^ . D'Ann Campbell, "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union" Journal of Military History (April 1993), 57:301-323.
  38. ^ a b Women join German fighting forces
  39. ^ Germany Marks Five Years of Women in Armed Forces
  40. ^ Starke Truppe – Immer mehr Frauen entscheiden sich für die Bundeswehr (Powerful troop - more and more women join the Bundeswehr)
  41. ^ First woman to attain air force qualification as jet pilot
  42. ^ TimesOnline: Adieu, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, a tricky guest Accessed 2008 June 29
  43. ^ United We Blog! for a Democratic Nepal » Maoist Army in Writing: Interview With Comrade Commissar
  44. ^ Nato Review
  45. ^ Forsvarsnett: Kvinner
  46. ^ [1] Military Report - Norway, 2006
  47. ^ Commodore Louise Kathrine Dedichen Bastviken promoted to Rear Admiral
  48. ^ Women in Home Army
  49. ^ Women in army - in Polish
  50. ^ Women's Death Battalion
  51. ^ http://www.rekryc.mil.se/article.php?id=11756 in Swedish, Retrieved 04-23-2007
  52. ^ [2]
  53. ^ a b http://www.nato.int/ims/2001/win/turkey.htm
  54. ^ Sabiha Gokcen (1913-2001), Pioneer Aviatrix
  55. ^ http://www.nato.int/ims/2005/win/national_reports/turkey.pdf
  56. ^ Wakeman, Sarah Rosetta, and Lauren M. Cook. 1994. An uncommon soldier the Civil War letters of Sarah Rosetta Wakeman, alias Private Lyons Wakeman, 153rd Regiment, New York State Volunteers. Pasadena, Md: The Minerva Center.
  57. ^ The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). "Letter to President William McKinley from Annie Oakley" Retrieved January 24, 2008. http://www.archives.gov/research/recover/example-02.html
  58. ^ "The Women of Redstone Arsenal". United States Army. http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/women_chron/chron1970s.html. Retrieved 2009-06-06. 
  59. ^ Busse, Charlane (July 1978). "First women join Pershing training". Field Artillery Journal (United States Army Field Artillery School): 40. http://sill-www.army.mil/famag/1978/JUL_AUG_1978/JUL_AUG_1978_PAGES_40_43.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-05. 
  60. ^ "The Journal interviews: 1LT Elizabeth A. Tourville". Field Artillery Journal (United States Army Field Artillery School): 40-43. November 1978. http://sill-www.army.mil/FAMAG/1978/JUL_AUG_1978/JUL_AUG_1978_PAGES_40_43.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-05. 
  61. ^ http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1356&dat=19840823&id=kdgTAAAAIBAJ&sjid=iwYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6981,4703933|Ocala Star-Banner August 23, 1984.
  62. ^ http://www.history.navy.mil/nan/backissues/1990s/1997/mj97/ppp.pdf|Naval Aviation News, May-June 1997.
  63. ^ Johnson, Michael G. (2005-09-27). "First All-female Crew Flies Combat Mission". DefendAmerica.mil (United States Department of Defense). http://www.defendamerica.mil/articles/sep2005/a092705wm3.html. Retrieved 2006-07-02. 
  64. ^ Clare, Micah E. (March 24, 2008), "Face of Defense: Woman Soldier Receives Silver Star", American Forces Press Service, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=49348 
  65. ^ Military's First Female Four-Star General
  66. ^ Armstrong, Rebecca (May 3, 2007), "U-34 submarine, Eckernforde, 02.05.07", Independent, the (London),: 2, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20070503/ai_n19047309 
  67. ^ chapter 4 "Traditions", paragraph 6
  68. ^ New Debate on Submarine Duty for Women Armed Forces Careers retrieved August 11, 2007
  69. ^ Can women go on submarines? United States Navy retrieved March 27, 2008
  70. ^ "Navy secretary: Time has come for women on subs" AP retrieved October 17, 2009

See also

v • d • e
History of women in warfare

References

Printed material

  • Campbell, D'Ann. Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Harvard University Press, 1984). on WW2
  • Campbell, D'Ann. "Servicewomen of World War II", Armed Forces and Society (Win 1990) 16: 251-270. statistical study based on interviews
  • Campbell, D'Ann. "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union" Journal of Military History (April 1993), 57:301-323. online edition
  • Carreiras, Helena and Gerhard Kammel (eds.) Women in the Military and in Armed Conflict (2008) excerpt and text search
  • Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Women and War (1995)
  • Elshtain Jean, and Sheila Tobias, eds., Women, Militarism, and War (1990),
  • Goldman, Nancy. "The Changing Role Of Women In The Armed Forces." American Journal Of Sociology 1973 78(4): 892-911. Issn: 0002-9602 online in Jstor
  • Goldstein, Joshua S. . War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (2003), psychology perspective
  • Herbert, Melissa S. Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military New York U. Pr., 1998.
  • Holm, Jeanne M. (1993). Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution. ; women from the United States
  • Holmstedt, Kirsten. Band of Sisters: American Women at War in Iraq (2007) excerpt and text search
  • Jones, David. Women Warriors: A History, Brassey's, 1997
  • Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1991). The Encyclopedia of Amazons: Women Warriors from Antiquity to the Modern Era. Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-420-5. 
  • Skaine, Rosemarie. Women at War: Gender Issues of Americans in Combat. McFarland, 1999.
  • Wise, James E. and Scott Baron. Women at War: Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Conflicts (2006)

Websites

For Further Reading

Booth, Bradford. 2003. “Contextual Effects of Military Presence on Women’s Earnings.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 30: pp. 25-51. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/25

Cooney, Richard; Segal, Mady Wechsler; Segal, David and Falk, William. 2003. “Racial Differences in the Impact of Military Service on the Socioeconomic Status of Women Veterans.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 30: pp. 53-85. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/53

Moore, Brenda. 1991. “African American Women in the U.S. Military.” Armed Forces & Society vol. 17: pp. 363-384. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/3/363

Iskra, Darlene. 2007. “Attitudes toward Expanding Roles for Navy Women at Sea: Results of a Content Analysis.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 33: pp. 203-223. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/33/2/203

Dar, Yechezkel and Shaul Kimhi. 2004. “Youth in the Military: Gendered Experiences in the Conscript Service in the Israeli Army.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 30: pp. 433-459. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/3/433


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