Dictionary:

yarn

  (yärn)

1. A continuous strand of twisted threads of natural or synthetic material, such as wool or nylon, used in weaving or knitting.
2. Informal. A long, often elaborate narrative of real or fictitious adventures; an entertaining tale.

To tell an entertaining tale or series of tales.

[Middle English, from Old English gearn.]

Background

Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together. Each strand is, in turn, made of fibers, all shorter than the piece of yarn that they form. These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to make the yarn. Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make them into yarns. Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing.

The characteristics of spun yarn depend, in part, on the amount of twist given to the fibers during spinning. A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn; a low twist produces softer, more lustrous yarn; and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn. Yarns are also classified by their number of parts. A single yarn is made from a group of filament or staple fibers twisted together. Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more single yarns. Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns.

Almost eight billion pounds (3.6 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United States during 1995, with 40% being produced in North Carolina alone. Over 50% of spun yarn is made from cotton. Textured, crimped, or bulked yarn comprised one half of the total spun. Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical, chemical, or heat treatments. Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape. Bulked yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed.

Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes, including weaving, knitting, and felting. Nearly four billion pounds (1.8 billion kg) of weaving yarn, three billion pounds (1.4 kg) of machine knitting yarn, and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995. The U.S. textile industry employs over 600,000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion kg) of mill fiber per year, with industry profits estimated at $2.1 billion in 1996. Exports represent more than 11% of industry sales, approaching $7 billion. The apparel industry employs another one million workers.

History

Natural fibers—cotton, flax, silk, and wool—represent the major fibers available to ancient civilizations. The earliest known samples of yarn and fabric of any kind were found near Robenhausen, Switzerland, where bundles of flax fibers and yarns and fragments of plain-weave linen fabric, were estimated to be about 7,000 years old.

Cotton has also been cultivated and used to make fabrics for at least 7,000 years. It may have existed in Egypt as early as 12,000 B.C. Fragments of cotton fabrics have been found by archeologists in Mexico (from 3500 B.C.)., in India (3000 B.C.), in Peru (2500 B.C.), and in the southwestern United States (500 B.C.). Cotton did not achieve commercial importance in Europe until after the colonization of the New World. Silk culture remained a specialty of the Chinese from its beginnings (2600 B.C.) until the sixth century, when silkworms were first raised in the Byzantine Empire.

Synthetic fibers did not appear until much later. The first synthetic, rayon, made from cotton or wood fibers, was developed in 1891, but not commercially produced until 1911. Almost a half a century later, nylon was invented, followed by the various forms of polyester. Synthetic fibers reduced the world demand for natural fibers and expanded applications.

Until about 1300, yarn was spun on the spindle and whorl. A spindle is a rounded stick with tapered ends to which the fibers are attached and twisted; a whorl is a weight attached to the spindle that acts as a flywheel to keep the spindle rotating. The fibers were pulled by hand from a bundle of carded fibers tied to a stick called a distaff. In hand carding, fibers are placed between two boards covered with leather, through which protrude fine wire hooks that catch the fibers as one board is pulled gently across the other.

The spindle, which hangs from the fibers, twists the fibers as it rotates downward, and spins a length of yarn as it pulls away from the fiber bundle. When the spindle reaches the floor, the spinner winds the yarn around the spindle to secure it and then starts the process again. This is continued until all of the fiber is spun or until the spindle is full.

A major improvement was the spinning wheel, invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D. and first used in Europe during the Middle Ages. A horizontally mounted spindle is connected to a large, hand-driven wheel by a circular band. The distaff is mounted at one end of the spinning wheel and the fiber is fed by hand to the spindle, which turns as the wheel turns. A component called the flyer twists the thread just before it is wound on a bobbin. The spindle and bobbin are attached to the wheel by separate parts, so that the bobbin turns more slowly than does the spindle. Thus, thread can be twisted and wound at the same time. About 150 years later, the Saxon wheel was introduced. Operated by a foot pedal, the Saxon wheel allowed both hands the freedom to work the fibers.

A number of developments during the eighteenth century further mechanized the spinning process. In 1733, the flying shuttle was invented by John Kay, followed by Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 1766. The jenny featured a series of spindles set in a row, enabling one operator to produce large quantities of yarn. Several years later Richard Arkwright patented the spinning frame, a machine that used a series of rotating rollers to draw out the fibers. A decade later Samule Cromptons' mule machine was invented, which could spin any type of yarn in one continuous operation.

The ring frame was invented in 1828 by the American John Thorp and is still widely used today. This system involves hundreds of spindles mounted vertically inside a metal ring. Many natural fibers are now spun by the open-end system, where the fibers are drawn by air into a rapidly rotating cup and pulled out on the other side as a finished yarn.

Raw Materials

About 15 different types of fibers are used to make yarn. These fibers fall into two categories, natural and synthetic. Natural fibers are those that are obtained from a plant or an animal and are mainly used in weaving textiles. The most abundant and commonly used plant fiber is cotton, gathered from the cotton boil or seed pod when it is mature. In fact, cotton is the best-selling fiber in America, outselling all synthetic fibers combined.

Fibers taken from the plant leaf or stern are generally used for rope. Other plant fibers include acetate (made from wood pulp or cotton linters) and linen, made from flax, a vegetable fiber. Animal fibers include wool, made from sheep hair, and mohair, made from angora goats and rabbits. Silk is a protein extruded in long, continuous strands by the silkworm as it weaves its cocoon.

Synthetic fibers are made by forcing a thick solution of polymerized chemicals through spinneret nozzles and hardening the resulting filament in a chemical bath. These include acrylic, nylon, polyester, polyolefin, rayon, spandex, and triacetate. Some of these fibers have similar characteristics to the natural fibers without the shrinkage problems. Other fibers have special properties for specific applications. For instance, spandex can be stretched over 500% without breaking.

The Manufacturing
Process

There are three major spinning processes: cotton, worsted or long-staple, or wool. Synthetic staple fibers can be made with any of these processes. Since more yarn is produced with the cotton process than the other two, its manufacture is described below.

Preparing the fibers

• Fibers are shipped in bales, which are opened by hand or machine. Natural fibers may require cleaning, whereas synthetic fibers only require separating. The picker loosens and separates the lumps of fiber and also cleans the fiber if necessary. Blending of different staple fibers may be required for certain applications. Blending may be done during formation of the lap, during carding, or during drawing out. Quantities of each fiber are measured carefully and their proportions are consistently maintained.

Carding

• The carding machine is set with hundreds of fine wires that separate the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form. A thin web of fiber is formed, and as it moves along, it passes through a funnel-shaped device that produces a ropelike strand of parallel fibers. Blending can take place by joining laps of different fibers.

Combing

• When a smoother, finer yarn is required, fibers are subjected to a further paralleling method. A comblike device arranges fibers into parallel form, with short fibers falling out of the strand.

Drawing out

• After carding or combing, the fiber mass is referred to as the sliver. Several slivers are combined before this process. A series of rollers rotating at different rates of speed elongate the sliver into a single more uniform strand that is given a small amount of twist and fed into large cans. Carded slivers are drawn twice after carding. Combed slivers are drawn once before combing and twice more after combing.

Twisting

• The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame, where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist. These strands are called the roving.

Spinning

• The predominant commercial systems of yarn formation are ring spinning and open-end spinning. In ring spinning, the roving is fed from the spool through rollers. These rollers elongate the roving, which passes through the eyelet, moving down and through the traveler. The traveler moves freely around the stationary ring at 4,000 to 12,000 revolutions per minute. The spindle turns the bobbin at a constant speed. This turning of the bobbin and the movement of the traveler twists and winds the yarn in one operation.

• Open-end spinning omits the roving step. Instead, a sliver of fibers is fed into the spinner by a stream of air. The sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates the fibers into a thin stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air through a tube or duct and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of the rotor. As the rotor turns, twist is produced. A constant stream of new fibers enters the rotor, is distributed in the groove, and is removed at the end of the formed yarn.

Quality Control

Automation has made achieving quality easier, with electronics controlling operations, temperatures, speeds, twists, and efficiency. The American Society for Testing of Materials has also established standardized methods for determining such properties as drawforce, bulk, and shrinkage.

The Future

Spinning systems and yarn manufacturing machinery will continue to become more automated and will be integrated as part of a manufacturing unit rather than as a separate process. Spinning machines have already been developed that combine carding and drawing functions. Production rates will increase by orders of magnitude as machines become available with even more spindles. Robot-controlled equipment will become standard.

Domestic yarn producers will continue to be threatened by competition from Asian countries, as these countries continue to buy the latest textile machinery technology. Higher domestic material prices will not help, since the cost of the raw material can represent up to 73% of the total cost of producing the yarn. U.S. yarn producers will continue to form alliances with their customers and customers' customers to remain competitive. The textile industry is also forming unique partnerships. The American Textile Partnership is a collaborative research and development program among industry, government, and academia aimed at strengthening the competitiveness of the U.S. industry.

Another continuing challenge for the industry will be compliance with stricter environmental regulations. Recycling is already an issue and processes are under development to manufacture yarn from scrap material, including denim. Yarn producers will have to incorporate pollution prevention measures to meet the air and water quality restrictions. Equipment manufactures will continue to play an important role in this endeavor.

Genetic engineering will become more widely used for developing fibers with unique properties. Researchers have developed genetically-altered cotton plants, whose fibers are especially good at retaining warmth. Each fiber is a blend of normal cotton and small amounts of a natural plastic called polyhydroxybutyrate. It is predicted that dye-binding properties and greater stability will be possible with new fibers in the next generation.

New synthetic fibers will also be developed that combine the best qualities of two different polymers. Some of these fibers will be produced through a chemical process, whereas others will be generated biologically by using yeast, bacteria, or fungi.

Where to Learn More

Books

Needles, H. L. Textile Fibers, Dyes, Finishes, and Processes. 1986.

Periodicals

Clune, Ray. "AYSA head exhorts yarn spinners to take more proactive stance." Daily News Record, May 8, 1996, p. 9.

Isaacs, McAllister. "Texturing gets automation as TYAA celebrates 20." Textile World, May 1992, p. 54.

"Long-staple processing moves to cut costs." Textile World, September 1992, p. 42.

Weiss, Rick. "Molecular biologists grow gene-altered cotton plants." Washington Post, November 12, 1996.

Tortora, Phyllis G. "Making Fibers into Yarns." Understanding Textiles. Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987.

Other

American Textile Manufacturers Institute, http://www.atmi.org

Cotton Incorporated, 4605 Creedmoor Road, Raleigh, North Carolina 27612, tel: 919/782-6330, fax: 919/881-9874, http://www.cottoninc.com

Current Industrial Reports, MA22F—Yarn Production. 1995. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. http://www.census.gov

[Article by: Laurel M. Sheppard]

noun

An entertaining and often oral account of a real or fictitious occurrence: anecdote, fable, story, tale. Informal tall tale. See words.

For more information on yarn, visit Britannica.com.

Yarn

Spools of thread

Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibers, suitable for use in the production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery and ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine. Modern manufactured sewing threads may be finished with wax or other lubricants to withstand the stresses involved in sewing.^[1] Embroidery threads are yarns specifically designed for hand or machine embroidery.

Structure

See main article Spinning (textiles)

A Spinning Jenny, spinning machine which initiated the Industrial Revolution

Z- and S-twist yarn

Spun yarn is made by twisting or otherwise bonding staple fibers together to make a cohesive thread.^[2] Twisting fibers into yarn in the process called spinning can be dated back to the Upper Paleolithic^[3], and yarn spinning was one of the very first processes to be industrialized. Spun yarns may contain a single fiber, or synthetic fibers which have high strength, artificial lustre, and fire retardant qualities may be blended with natural fibers which have good water absorbance and skin comforting qualities, in different proportions, to manufacture yarn for fabric. The most widely used blends are cotton-polyester and wool-acrylic fiber blends.

Yarns are made up of any number of plies, each ply being a single spun yarn. These single plys of yarn are twisted in the opposite direction (plied) together to make a thicker yarn. Depending on the direction of this final twist, the yarn will be known as s-twist or z-twist.

Filament yarn consists of filament fibers twisted together. Thicker monofilaments are typically used for industrial purposes rather than fabric production or decoration. Silk is a natural filament, and synthetic filament yarns are used to produce silk-like effects.

Texturized yarns are made by a process of air texturizing (sometimes referred to as taslanizing), which combines multiple filament yarns into a yarn with some of the characteristics of spun yarns.

Measurement

Craft yarns

Yarn quantities are usually measured by weight in ounces or grams. In the United States, balls of yarn for handcrafts are usually sold in three-ounce, four-ounce, six-ounce, and eight-ounce skeins. In Europe, yarn is often sold in increments of 25 grams, with 25 g, 50 g, and 100 g being common quantities. These measurements are taken at a standard temperature and humidity, because yarn can absorb moisture from the air. The actual length of the yarn contained in a ball or skein can vary due to the inherent heaviness of the fiber and the thickness of the strand; for instance, a 50 g skein of lace weight mohair may contain several hundred meters, while a 50 g skein of bulky wool may contain only 60 meters.

There are several thicknesses of yarn, also referred to as weight. An effort by the Craft Yarn Council of America is being made to promote a standardized industry system for measuring this, numbering the weights from 1 (finest) to 6 (heaviest)^[4]. Some of the names for the various weights of yarn from finest to thickest are called lace, fingering, sock, sport, double-knit (or DK), worsted, aran, bulky, and super-bulky. This naming convention is more descriptive than precise; fiber artists disagree about where on the continuum each lies, and the precise relationships between the sizes.

A more precise measurement of yarn weight, often used by weavers, is wraps per inch (wpi). The yarn is wrapped snugly around a ruler and the number of wraps that fit in an inch are counted.

Labels on yarn for handcrafts often include information on gauge, known in the UK as tension, which is a measurement of how many stitches and rows are produced per inch or per centimeter on a specified size of knitting needle or crochet hook. The proposed standardization uses a four-by-four inch/ten-by-ten centimeter knitted or crocheted square, with the resultant number of stitches across and rows high made by the suggested tools on the label to determine the gauge.

In Europe textile engineers often use the unit tex, which is the weight in grams of a kilometer of yarn, or decitex, which is a finer measurement corresponding to the weight in grams of 10 kilometers of yarn. Many other units have been used over time by different industries.

Thread

Most types of embroidery thread come in a single size or weight; an exception is pearl or perle cotton, which comes in three weights, No. 3 (heaviest), No. 5, and No. 8 (finest).^[5]

Color

Yarn drying after being dyed in the early American tradition, at Conner Prairie living history museum.

Yarn may be used undyed, or may be colored with natural or artificial dyes. Most yarns have a single uniform hue, but there is also a wide selection of variegated yarns:

• heathered or tweed: yarn with flecks of different colored fiber
• ombre: variegated yarn with light and dark shades of a single hue
• multi-colored: variegated yarn with two or more distinct hues (a "parrot colorway" might have green, yellow and red)
• self-striping: yarn dyed with lengths of color that will automatically create stripes in a knitted or crocheted object
• marled: yarn made from strands of different-colored yarn twisted together, sometimes in closely-related hues

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Yarn

• Embroidery thread
• List of novelty yarns
• Textile manufacturing
• Electrically conducting yarn

Notes

1. ^ Kadolph, Sara J., ed.: Textiles, 10th edition, Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2007, ISBN 0-13-118769-4, p. 203
2. ^ Kadolph, Textiles, p. 197
3. ^ Barber, Elizabeth Wayland: Women's Work:The First 20,000 Years, W. W. Norton, 1994, p. 44
4. ^ http://www.yarnstandards.com/weight.html
5. ^ Reader's Digest Complete Guide to Needlework. The Reader's Digest Association, Inc. (March 1992). ISBN 0-89577-059-8, p. 8

External links

• Craft Yarn Council of America
• How to buy enough yarn: Wraps per inch method
• Manufacturing compact yarn

Textile arts
Fundamentals:	Applique · Crochet · Dyeing · Fiber · Knitting · Lace · Nålebinding · Needlework · Textiles · Patchwork · Passementerie · Quilting · Rope · Sewing · Spinning · Tapestry · Textile printing · Weaving · Yarn
History of... :	Clothing and textiles · Silk · Quilting · Textiles in the Industrial Revolution · Timeline of textile technology
Related:	Blocking · Manufacturing · Preservation · Terminology · Textile industry · Textile Museums

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - garn, fortælling, historie, røverhistorie
v. intr. - fortælle en historie, spinde en ende, snakke

Nederlands (Dutch)
garen, lang/ onwaarschijnlijk verhaal (vertellen)

Français (French)
n. - (Tex) fil à tricoter, histoire
v. intr. - raconter des histoires

Deutsch (German)
n. - Garn, Geschichte
v. - Geschichten erzählen

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - νήμα, κλωστή, μαλλί πλεξίματος, φανταστική ιστορία, αφήγημα
v. - αφηγούμαι

Italiano (Italian)
racconto, filo

Português (Portuguese)
n. - fio (m), história (f)
v. - conversar

Русский (Russian)
пряжа, нить, длинный рассказ, рассказывать небылицы

Español (Spanish)
n. - hilo, hilaza, cuento, historia
v. intr. - hilar, contar historias

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - garn, tråd, skepparhistoria (vard.)
v. - dra skepparhistorier (vard.), sitta o ljuga (vard.)

中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
纱, 故事, 纱线, 讲故事

中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 紗, 故事, 紗線
v. intr. - 講故事

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 꼰실, 꾸며낸 이야기, 방사
v. intr. - (긴) 이야기를 하다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 糸, 冒険談, 話, 紡績糸
v. - 長話をする, 冒険談をする

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) غزل, خيط مبروم, حكايه, احدوثه (فعل) روى حكايه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮חוט, סיפור ארוך‬
v. intr. - ‮סיפר סיפורים‬

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