yoga

Definition

The term yoga comes from a Sanskrit word which means yoke or union. Traditionally, yoga is a method joining the individual self with the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. Physical and mental exercises are designed to help achieve this goal, also called self-transcendence or enlightenment. On the physical level, yoga postures, called asanas, are designed to tone, strengthen, and align the body. These postures are performed to make the spine supple and healthy and to promote blood flow to all the organs, glands, and tissues, keeping all the bodily systems healthy. On the mental level, yoga uses breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation (dyana) to quiet, clarify, and discipline the mind. However, experts are quick to point out that yoga

is not a religion, but a way of living with health and peace of mind as its aims.

Description

Yoga originated in ancient India and is one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as 5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. Yoga masters (yogis) claim that it is a highly developed science of healthy living that has been tested and perfected for all these years. Yoga was first brought to America in the late 1800s when Swami Vivekananda, an Indian teacher and yogi, presented a lecture on meditation in Chicago. Yoga slowly began gaining followers, and flourished during the 1960s when there was a surge of interest in Eastern philosophy. There has since been a vast exchange of yoga knowledge in America, with many students going to India to study and many Indian experts coming here to teach, resulting in the establishment of a wide variety schools. Today, yoga is thriving, and it has become easy to find teachers and practitioners throughout America. A recent Roper poll, commissioned by Yoga Journal, found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and 6 million perform it regularly. Yoga stretches are used by physical therapists and professional sports teams, and the benefits of yoga are being touted by movie stars and Fortune 500 executives. Many prestigious schools of medicine have studied and introduced yoga techniques as proven therapies for illness and stress. Some medical schools, like UCLA, even offer yoga classes as part of their physician training program.

Classical yoga is separated into eight limbs, each a part of the complete system for mental, physical and spiritual well-being. Four of the limbs deal with mental and physical exercises designed to bring the mind in tune with the body. The other four deal with different stages of meditation. There are six major types of yoga, all with the same goals of health and harmony but with varying techniques: hatha, raja, karma, bhakti, jnana, and tantra yoga. Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in America, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements and breathing techniques designed to tune the body to its optimal health. The yoga philosophy believes the breath to be the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of prana, or life force, and hatha yoga utilizes pranayama, which literally means the science or control of breathing. Hatha yoga was originally developed as a system to make the body strong and healthy enough to enable mental awareness and spiritual enlightenment.

There are several different schools of hatha yoga in America; the two most prevalent ones are Iyengar and ashtanga yoga. Iyengar yoga was founded by B.K.S. Iyengar, who is widely considered as one of the great living innovators of yoga. Iyengar yoga puts strict emphasis on form and alignment, and uses traditional hatha yoga techniques in new manners and sequences. Iyengar yoga can be good for physical therapy because it allows the use of props like straps and blocks to make it easier for some people to get into the yoga postures. Ashtanga yoga can be a more vigorous routine, using a flowing and dance-like sequence of hatha postures to generate body heat, which purifies the body through sweating and deep breathing.

The other types of yoga show some of the remaining ideas which permeate yoga. Raja yoga strives to bring about mental clarity and discipline through meditation, simplicity, and non-attachment to worldly things and desires. Karma yoga emphasizes charity, service to others, non-aggression and non-harming as means to awareness and peace. Bhakti yoga is the path of devotion and love of God, or Universal Spirit. Jnana yoga is the practice and development of knowledge and wisdom. Finally, tantra yoga is the path of self-awareness through religious rituals, including awareness of sexuality as sacred and vital.

A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, or asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and healthy and increasing circulation. Hatha yoga asanas utilize three basic movements: forward bends, backward bends, and twisting motions. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, tree, and the head to knee pose, to name a few. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the practitioner is also usually aware of when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is another fundamental aspect of yoga. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.

Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, and some routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.

Yoga is usually best learned from a yoga teacher or physical therapist, but yoga is simple enough that one can learn the basics from good books on the subject, which are plentiful. Yoga classes are generally inexpensive, averaging around 10 dollars per class, and students can learn basic postures in just a few classes. Many YMCAs, colleges, and community health organizations offer beginning yoga classes as well, often for nominal fees. If yoga is part of a physical therapy program, it can be reimbursed by insurance.

— Douglas Dupler

1. also Yoga A Hindu discipline aimed at training the consciousness for a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquillity.
2. A system of exercises practiced as part of this discipline to promote control of the body and mind.

[Hindi, from Sanskrit yogaḥ, union, joining.]

For more information on Yoga, visit Britannica.com.

The word ‘yoga’ refers primarily to an ancient Hindu spiritual tradition intended to overcome the narrow sense of individual selfhood, though its usage ranges from the very general to the specific and highly technical. The word is probably derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, which implies a yoke or harness, invoking the notion that when the ox and the cart are connected via the yoke, the resulting complex is greater than the sum of its parts. In its most general sense, yoga involves harnessing or integrating the forces of embodiment (mind, body, and spirit) in order to transcend embodiment.

Sometime around 200 bce, a man named Patanjali developed a system of yoga which ostensibly synthesized previous yogic traditions. It corresponds to a model of the human organism found in the sacred Hindu texts, the Vedas. This model is known as the ‘sheath’ model, and describes the human organism as a series of concentric sheaths or envelopes, all composed of matter of varying degrees of fineness or subtlety. The spectrum of human material ranges from the most crude or dense, to the most absolutely fine or subtle, and therefore the most ‘real.’ The goal of Patanjali's yoga is to identify progressively with the finer aspects of one's being until purification leads to identification with the True Self, residing at the core of the sheaths.

Patanjali's yoga, sometimes called Raja or ‘royal’ or ‘grand’ yoga because of its broadly synthetic ambitions, involves eight steps or stages, of which the first five are considered ‘external’ and the last three ‘internal.’ This relates to the sheath model. In Indian medical theory, for instance, which also bases itself in part on the sheath model, disease always begins from the outside and works its way in, so that even mental illness is a form of physical illness that has progressed to the innermost sheaths. Healing, then, must also begin with the physical and proceed to the spiritual.

These eight steps of the yogic path are meant to be accomplished sequentially. That is, one masters the first, and adds the second. When the second is mastered, the third is added, and so on.

The first five or ‘external’ stages are:

Yama or ‘restraint’

The path begins with self-discipline, or the adoption of a basic moral code of non-karmic or ‘unselfish’ activity. The yogi forsakes stealing, lying, cheating, killing, and other exploitative and self-gratifying behaviours.

Niyama or ‘purity’

Purity involves both hygiene and diet. In terms of hygiene, radical ablutions or cleansing rituals are performed, such as swallowing a length of gauze and pulling it back out again, in order to scour the intestinal tract. Thus hygiene goes beyond the superficial conception of cleanliness which governs ordinary life. Diet is also important, since the outermost sheaths are composed of the food that we eat. Dense foods such as meat are to be avoided, and subtle, refined foods are to be preferred. Also important are the mode of preparation and the sizes and times of meals. Fasting is also an important purity practice, but is seen as a hygienic concern, and not a dietary one.

Asana or ‘postures’

The twisting, bending, and stretching that are commonly associated with the practice of yoga serve a number of purposes. The holding of postures prepares the body to sit for long periods of time in meditation, enables the overcoming of the boredom reflex, and is held to stimulate the endocrine system and thus to be important, since the endocrine system affects our emotions; this stage of yoga begins to affect the emotional as well as the physical sheaths.

Pranayama or ‘breathing exercises’

Prana is the life force which enters the body with the breath and which is metabolized from the foods we eat. Breathing exercises improve the ability of the body to metabolize prana. Also, since breathing affects emotions, breath work helps to regulate and refine the emotional sheath. Finally, breathing also represents a bridge between those physiological functions which we believe we can control (voluntary) and those which we cannot (involuntary). Adept yogis claim to be able to control metabolism, reflex, and brainwave activity — events slow or virtually stop the heartbeat.

Pratyahara or ‘sensory withdrawal’

At this stage, the yogi is able to use the power of concentration to withdraw attention and identification from the outermost, physical, ‘external’ sheaths. This means that sensory input is blocked out or ignored through an effort of will. The only sound one hears is the pounding of the heart, and this explains why a yogi might want to slow or stop the heartbeat, in order to establish true peace and quiet and facilitate inwardness.

The last three, or ‘internal’ stages are:

Dharana or ‘concentration’

Concentration in this sense involves what is described as single-pointedness, that is, the fixation of mind, body, and spirit on a common focal point. Here, the image of the third eye is invoked to suggest the strengthening of spiritual vision to the point where it is capable of sustaining a single object for long periods of time, like an eye staring at an object.

Dhyana or ‘meditation’

Dhyana refers to meditation, or a sense of radical self-awareness. To return to the metaphor of the third eye, once it has been trained to stare unblinkingly at a single object for a long period of time, it then turns inward upon itself, watching itself watch itself. This awareness takes place without judgment or evaluation, and drives a wedge between our experience and our Self. We watch or ‘witness’ our own experience as though it were only virtually real, as though it were a drama or play. We cease to identify with it.

Samadhi or ‘bliss-trance’

This condition is one of complete effacement of individuality. One no longer identifies with one's body or ego; one's actions are selflessly motivated and non-karmic. This virtually guarantees that liberation will occur with death, which will take place once the consequences of past karmic action have been borne.

— Alan Fox

See also breath; Buddhism and the body; third eye.

A philosophical system attributed to the Hindu, Patanjali, who lived in India in about 150 BC In Sanskrit, the word ‘yoga’ means ‘union’. The yoga philosophy is based on developing a mystical union between yourself and a personal deity through a combination of self-hypnosis, meditation, the adoption of special postures (asanas), and ascetic practices. In the West, the meditation and special postures have been adapted as a system of physical exercise and relaxation techniques. The exercises consist of slow stretching movements performed in harmony with breathing. Yoga tones all the muscles, flexes the joints and strengthens the body. Some of the exercises have been incorporated in a new form of aerobic activity called ‘yogacise’.

A discipline that focuses on the body’s musculature, posture, breathing mechanisms, and consciousness. The goal of yoga is attainment of physical and mental well-being through mastery of the body, achieved through exercise, holding of postures, proper breathing, and meditation.

Definition

The term yoga comes from a Sanskrit word that means yoke or union. Traditionally, yoga is a method joining the individual self with the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. Physical and mental

exercises are designed to help achieve this goal, also called self-transcendence or enlightenment. On the physical level, yoga postures, called asanas, are designed to tone, strengthen, and align the body. These postures are performed to make the spine supple and healthy and to promote blood flow to all the organs, glands, and tissues, keeping all the bodily systems healthy. On the mental level, yoga uses breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation (dyana) to quiet, clarify, and discipline the mind. However, experts are quick to point out that yoga is not a religion, but a way of living with health and peace of mind as its aims.

Origins

Yoga originated in ancient India and is one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as

5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. Yoga masters (yogis) claim that it is a highly developed science of healthy living that has been tested and perfected for all these years. Yoga was first brought to America in the late 1800s when Swami Vivekananda, an Indian teacher and yogi, presented a lecture on meditation in Chicago. Yoga slowly began gaining followers, and flourished during the 1960s when there was a surge of interest in Eastern philosophy. There has since been a vast exchange of yoga knowledge in America, with many students going to India to study and many Indian experts coming here to teach, resulting in the establishment of a wide variety of schools. Today, yoga is thriving, and it has become easy to find teachers and practitioners throughout America. A recent Roper poll, commissioned by Yoga Journal, found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and six million perform it regularly. Yoga stretches are used by physical therapists and professional sports teams, and the benefits of yoga are being touted by movie stars and Fortune 500 executives. Many prestigious schools of medicine have studied and introduced yoga techniques as proven therapies for illness and stress. Some medical schools, like UCLA, even offer yoga classes as part of their physician training program.

Benefits

Yoga has been used to alleviate problems associated with high blood pressure, high cholesterol, migraine headaches, asthma, shallow breathing, backaches, constipation, diabetes, menopause, multiple sclerosis, varicose veins, and many chronic illnesses. It also has been studied and approved for its ability to promote relaxation and reduce stress. On the other hand, some researchers are now questioning claims that yoga is beneficial for such conditions as carpal tunnel syndrome.

As of late 2002, yoga is increasingly recommended for dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome, and other disorders in premenopausal women, in Europe as well as in the United States.

Yoga can also provide the same benefits as any well-designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles. Yoga has the added advantage of being a low-impact activity that uses only gravity as resistance, which makes it an excellent physical therapy routine; certain yoga postures can be safely used to strengthen and balance all parts of the body. A study published in late 2002 summarized recent findings about the benefits of yoga for the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. The review noted that yoga is still viewed as a "trendy" form of exercise rather than one with documented medical benefits.

Meditation has been much studied and approved for its benefits in reducing stress-related conditions. The landmark book, The Relaxation Response, by Harvard cardiologist Herbert Benson, showed that meditation and breathing techniques for relaxation could have the opposite effect of stress, reducing blood pressure and other indicators. Since then, much research has reiterated the benefits of meditation for stress reduction and general health. Currently, the American Medical Association recommends meditation techniques as a first step before medication for borderline hypertension cases. Some 2002 studies indicate that yogic meditation by itself is effective in lowering serum cholesterol as well as blood pressure.

Modern psychological studies have shown that even slight facial expressions can cause changes in the involuntary nervous system; yoga utilizes the mind/body connection. That is, yoga practice contains the central ideas that physical posture and alignment can influence a person's mood and self-esteem, and also that the mind can be used to shape and heal the body. Yoga practitioners claim that the strengthening of mind/body awareness can bring eventual improvements in all facets of a person's life.

Description

Classical yoga is separated into eight limbs, each a part of the complete system for mental, physical, and spiritual well-being. Four of the limbs deal with mental and physical exercises designed to bring the mind in tune with the body. The other four deal with different stages of meditation. There are six major types of yoga, all with the same goals of health and harmony but with varying techniques: hatha, raja, karma, bhakti, jnana, and tantra yoga. Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in America, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements, and breathing techniques designed to tune the body to its optimal health. The yoga philosophy believes the breath to be the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of prana, or life force, and hatha yoga utilizes pranayama, which literally means the science or control of breathing. Hatha yoga was originally developed as a system to make the body strong and healthy enough to enable mental awareness and spiritual enlightenment.

There are several different schools of hatha yoga in America; the two most prevalent ones are Iyengar and ashtanga yoga. Iyengar yoga was founded by B.K.S. Iyengar, who is widely considered as one of the great living innovators of yoga. Iyengar yoga puts strict emphasis on form and alignment, and uses traditional hatha yoga techniques in new manners and sequences. Iyengar yoga can be good for physical therapy because it allows the use of props like straps and blocks to make it easier for some people to get into the yoga postures. Ashtanga yoga can be a more vigorous routine, using a flowing and dance-like sequence of hatha postures to generate body heat, which purifies the body through sweating and deep breathing.

The other types of yoga show some of the remaining ideas that permeate yoga. Raja yoga strives to bring about mental clarity and discipline through meditation, simplicity, and non-attachment to worldly things and desires. Karma yoga emphasizes charity, service to others, non-aggression and non-harming as means to awareness and peace. Bhakti yoga is the path of devotion and love of God, or Universal Spirit. Jnana yoga is the practice and development of knowledge and wisdom. Finally, tantra yoga is the path of self-awareness through religious rituals, including awareness of sexuality as sacred and vital.

A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, or asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and healthy and increasing circulation. Hatha yoga asanas utilize three basic movements: forward bends, backward bends, and twisting motions. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, and tree, to name a few. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the practitioner is also usually aware of when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is another fundamental aspect of yoga. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise, and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.

Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, and some routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility, and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.

Yoga is usually best learned from a yoga teacher or physical therapist, but yoga is simple enough that one can learn the basics from good books on the subject, which are plentiful. Yoga classes are generally inexpensive, averaging around 10 dollars per class, and students can learn basic postures in just a few classes. Many YMCAs, colleges, and community health organizations offer beginning yoga classes as well, often for nominal fees. If yoga is part of a physical therapy program, its cost can be reimbursed by insurance.

Preparations

Yoga can be performed by those of any age and condition, although not all poses should be attempted by everyone. Yoga is also a very accessible form of exercise; all that is needed is a flat floor surface large enough to stretch out on, a mat or towel, and enough overhead space to fully raise the arms. It is a good activity for those who cannot go to gyms, who do not like other forms of exercise, or have very busy schedules. Yoga should be done on an empty stomach, and teachers recommend waiting three or more hours after meals. Loose and comfortable clothing should be worn.

Precautions

People with injuries, medical conditions, or spinal problems should consult a doctor before beginning yoga. Those with medical conditions should find a yoga teacher who is familiar with their type of problem and who is willing to give them individual attention. Pregnant women can benefit from yoga, but should always be guided by an experienced teacher. Certain yoga positions should not be performed with a fever, or during menstruation.

Beginners should exercise care and concentration when performing yoga postures, and not try to stretch too much too quickly, as injury could result. Some advanced yoga postures, like the headstand and full lotus position, can be difficult and require strength, flexibility, and gradual preparation, so beginners should get the help of a teacher before attempting them.

Yoga is not a competitive sport; it does not matter how a person does in comparison with others, but how aware and disciplined one becomes with one's own body and limitations. Proper form and alignment should always be maintained during a stretch or posture, and the stretch or posture should be stopped when there is pain, dizziness, or fatigue. The mental component of yoga is just as important as the physical postures. Concentration and awareness of breath should not be neglected. Yoga should be done with an open, gentle, and non-critical mind; when one stretches into a yoga position, it can be thought of as accepting and working on one's limits. Impatience, self-criticism, and comparing oneself to others will not help in this process of self-knowledge. While performing the yoga of breathing (pranayama) and meditation (dyana), it is best to have an experienced teacher, as these powerful techniques can cause dizziness and discomfort when done improperly.

Side Effects

Some people have reported injuries by performing yoga postures without proper form or concentration, or by attempting difficult positions without working up to them gradually or having appropriate supervision. Beginners sometimes report muscle soreness and fatigue after performing yoga, but these side effects diminish with practice.

Research & General Acceptance

Although yoga originated in a culture very different from modern America, it has been accepted and its practice has spread relatively quickly. Many yogis are amazed at how rapidly yoga's popularity has spread in America, considering the legend that it was passed down secretly by handfuls of followers for many centuries.

There can still be found some resistance to yoga, for active and busy Americans sometimes find it hard to believe that an exercise program that requires them to slow down, concentrate, and breathe deeply can be more effective than lifting weights or running. However, ongoing research in top medical schools is showing yoga's effectiveness for overall health and for specific problems, making it an increasingly acceptable health practice.

Training & Certification

Many different schools of yoga have developed in America, and beginners should experiment with them to find the best-suited routine. Hatha yoga schools emphasize classical yoga postures, and raja yoga schools concentrate on mental discipline and meditation techniques. In America, there are no generally accepted standards for the certification of yoga teachers. Some schools certify teachers in a few intensive days and some require years of study before certifying teachers. Beginners should search for teachers who show respect and are careful in their teaching, and should beware of instructors who push them into poses before they are ready.

Resources

Books

Ansari, Mark, and Liz Lark. Yoga for Beginners. New York: Harper, 1999.

Bodian, Stephan, and Georg Feuerstein. Living Yoga. New York: Putnam, 1993.

Carrico, Mara. Yoga Journal's Yoga Basics. New York: Henry Holt, 1997.

Iyengar, B.K.S. Light on Yoga. New York: Schocken, 1975.

Pelletier, Kenneth R., MD. The Best Alternative Medicine, Chapter 10, "Ayurvedic Medicine and Yoga: From Buddha to the Millennium." New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

Periodicals

Engebretson, J. "Culture and Complementary Therapies." Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery 8 (November 2002): 177–184.

Gerritsen, A. A., M. C. de Krom, M. A. Struijs, et al. "Conservative Treatment Options for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials." Journal of Neurology 249 (March 2002): 272–280.

Kronenberg, F., and A. Fugh-Berman. "Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Menopausal Symptoms: A Review of Randomized, Controlled Trials." Annals of Internal Medicine 137 (November 19, 2002): 805–813.

Manocha, R., G. B. Marks, P. Kenchington, et al. "Sahaja Yoga in the Management of Moderate to Severe Asthma: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Thorax 57 (February 2002): 110–115.

Raub, J. A. "Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A Literature Review." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (December 2002): 797–812.

Tonini, G. "Dysmenorrhea, Endometriosis and Premenstrual Syndrome." [in Italian] Minerva Pediatrica 54 (December 2002): 525–538.

Vyas, R., and N. Dikshit. "Effect of Meditation on Respiratory System, Cardiovascular System and Lipid Profile." Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 46 (October 2002): 487–491.

Yoga International Magazine. R.R. 1 Box 407, Honesdale, PA 18431. .

Yoga Journal. P.O. Box 469088, Escondido, CA 92046. .

Organizations

American Yoga Association. .

International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT). 4150 Tivoli Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90066.

Yoga Research and Education Center (YREC). 2400A County Center Drive, Santa Rosa, CA 95403. (707) 566-0000. .

Other

Yoga Directory. .

Yoga Finder Online. .

[Article by: Douglas Dupler; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]

Definition

The term "yoga" comes from a Sanskrit word meaning "union." Yoga combines physical exercises, mental meditation, and breathing techniques to strengthen the muscles and relieve stress.

Purpose

Yoga has been practiced for thousands of years as a life philosophy to join the individual self with what practitioners call the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. However, very few individuals in the United States as of 2004 practiced yoga in this way; rather, yoga is performed as part of an exercise program to increase general health, reduce stress, improve flexibility and muscle strength, and alleviate certain physical symptoms, such as chronic pain. Because yoga is a low-impact activity and can include gentle movements, it is commonly used as part of physical therapy and rehabilitation of injuries.

Clinical and psychological studies have demonstrated that performing yoga has the following benefits:

• Physical postures strengthen and tone muscles, and when performed in rapid succession, can provide cardiovascular conditioning.
• Meditation and deep breathing can reduce stress, thereby lowering blood pressure and inducing relaxation.
• Mind/body awareness can influence mood and self-esteem to improve quality of life.

In addition to exercise and stress reduction, yoga is also used therapeutically to help children and adolescents with medical conditions. Yoga instructors experienced in adapting yoga postures for individuals with special needs teach yoga to children and adolescents with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, seizure disorders, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, cancer, autism, Asperger's syndrome, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), psychiatric disorders, learning disabilities, and other disabilities to help improve physical and mental functioning. Many physicians may recommend yoga for patients with hypertension, asthma, stress-related disorders, and depression. Growing interest in alternative and complementary medicine has increased the popularity of yoga in the United States and spurred research into its medical benefits. Many hospitals offer alternative or integrative medicine centers that include yoga classes.

Some yoga instructors have even pioneered yoga for infants and toddlers, practiced with one or both parents. Yoga for infants and toddlers can improve sleep, ease digestive problems, facilitate neuromuscular development, strengthen the immune system, deepen parent-child bonds, serve as an outlet for creative play and self-expression, and reduce stress and anxiety for both parents and children.

Description

Yoga originated in ancient India and is considered one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as 5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. A recent poll conducted by Yoga Journal found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and 6 million perform it regularly.

Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in the United States, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements, and breathing techniques. The yoga philosophy maintains that the breath is the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of "prana," or life force, and hatha yoga uses "pranayama," which literally means the science or control of breathing.

A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, called asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and increasing circulation. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, tree, and the head to knee pose, to name a few. Poses named after animals are especially appealing to children, and children's yoga programs focus on those poses that mimic animals and trees. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the instructor cues participants when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is a fundamental aspect of yoga postures. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise, and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, called dyana, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.

Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. For children, 30 minutes may be the maximum span of attention for practicing yoga. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, especially those called ashtanga, or power, yoga. Other routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Power yoga is only appropriate for children and adolescents who have practiced yoga for some time, or who are engaged in advanced athletic activities. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility, and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.

Precautions

Children and adolescents with injuries, medical conditions, or spinal problems should consult a physician before beginning yoga. For children with special needs, parents should find a yoga teacher who is properly trained and experienced and can give children individual attention. Certain yoga positions should not be performed by a person who has a fever or is menstruating.

Children and adolescents who are beginners at yoga should always be properly supervised, since injuries are possible, and some advanced yoga postures, like the headstand and full lotus position, can be difficult and require strength, flexibility, and gradual preparation. Proper form and alignment should always be maintained during a stretch or posture, and the stretch or posture should be stopped if pain, dizziness, or excessive fatigue occurs.

While yoga can be used therapeutically to help alleviate certain symptoms in children with various medical conditions, it is not a cure. A physician should be consulted for standard medical treatment.

Risks

Injuries have been reported when yoga postures were performed without proper form or concentration, or by attempting difficult positions without working up to them gradually or having appropriate supervision. Beginners sometimes report muscle soreness and fatigue after performing yoga, but these side effects diminish with practice.

Parental Concerns

Parents should make sure that the yoga instructor is qualified to teach yoga to children. Yoga instructors experienced in teaching adults may not understand that teaching children requires different skills and methods. Yoga certifications and/or training in teaching children are available.

Yoga classes for children, adolescents, and teens are held at local schools, community centers, fitness clubs, and YMCAs. In addition, yoga videos for children are available online at www.collagevideo.com. For children who want to perform yoga at home, parental supervision is necessary.

Resources

Books

Caldwell, Micheala, et al. The Girls' Yoga Book: Stretch Your Body, Open Your Mind, and Have Fun. Berkeley, CA: Maple Tree Press, 2005.

Hall, Doriel. Yoga for New Mothers: Getting Your Body and Mind Back in Shape the Natural Way after Birth. New York: Anness, 2005.

Iyengar, B. K. S. Yoga: The Path to Holistic Health. London: Korling Kindersley Limited, 2001.

Periodicals

Cohen, L., et al. "Psychological Adjustment and Sleep Quality in a Randomized Trial of the Effects of a Tibetan Yoga Intervention in Patients with Lymphoma." Cancer 100 (May 15, 2004): 2253–2260.

Cooper, S., et al. "Effect of Two Breathing Exercises (Buteyko and Pranayama) on Asthma: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Thorax 58 (August 2003): 674–79.

Leschin-Hoar, C. "Seeking Yoga's Soothing Touch: Many Say Children with Medical Issues Benefit from its Use." Boston Globe November 20, 2003.

Oken, B. S., et al. "Randomized Controlled Trial of Yoga and Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis." Neurology 62 (June 8, 2004): 2058–2064.

Raub, J. A. "Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A Literature Review." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (December 2002): 797–812.

Organizations

American Yoga Association. Web site: www.americanyogaassociation.org.

International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT). Web site: www.iayt.org.

Web Sites

Itsy Bitsy Yoga. Benefits of Yoga for Babies and Toddlers. Available online at www.itsybitsyyoga.com/babyandtoddleryogabenefits.htm (accessed November 15, 2004).

Lipson, E. "Yoga Works! Medical Science Is Finally Validating What Yogis Have Known for Thousands of Years." Yoga Journal, Winter 1999–2000. Available online at www.yogajournal.com/health/115.cfm (accessed November 15, 2004).

Orkin, Lisa. "Yoga Helps Kids Find Balance in Their Lives." The Yoga Site: The Online Yoga Resource Center, August 2004. Available online at www.yogasite.com/yoga%20kids.htm (accessed November 15, 2004).

Sumar, Sonia. "Yoga for the Special Child," August 2004. Available online at www.specialyoga.com/ (accessed November 15, 2004).

"Yoga." Nemours Foundation: TeensHealth, August 2001. Available online at www.kidshealth.org/teen/food_fitness/exercise/yoga.html (accessed November 15, 2004).

[Article by: Jennifer E. Sisk, MA]

The Hindu school, associated with the school of Samkhya as the practical method for achieving the understanding of the self. Yoga is the discipline (or ‘yoke’) necessary for the pure subject to recognize itself, and separate itself from the empirical reality with which it is confused. Various kinds of involvement with the ego and desires and aversions are responsible for ‘fluctuations of the mind-stuff’ that can only be overcome by training. Yoga includes moral restraints, and spiritual imperatives, as well as the familiar exercises (asanas) designed to withdraw consciousness from the senses, focus the mind, and ultimately achieve meditation in which the self is completely and transparently understood (samadhi).

(Sanskrit, yoking, joining). Any form of spiritual discipline aimed at gaining control over the mind with the ultimate aim of attaining liberation from rebirth. Yogic practices such as bodily postures and breath control are common to many Indian religions, although such practices were only termed ‘yoga’ a little before the time of the Buddha. The Buddha used such techniques primarily as aids to meditation, whereas other teachers emphasized the physical exercises and bodily postures that became known as Haṭha yoga. The process of systematization of these techniques was carried out by the Yoga school, one of the six systems (darśana) of Indian philosophy, and its teachings are codified in the Yoga Sūtra (2nd-3rd century ce) of Patañjali. According to this text, the goal of yoga is ‘the cessation of mental fluctuation’ (cittavṛtti nirodha), and the practical methods it uses to attain this are very similar to early Buddhist techniques of meditation based on breath control.

The term yoga is derived from the Sanskrit for “joining” or “yoking.” As a discipline, it takes many forms leading to extreme focusing of one's physical and mental powers and to consciousness raising and liberation (see Mokṣa) from saṃsāra (see Saṃsāra) or—ultimately and ideally—to a “joining” with Brahman (see Brahman). Yoga seems likely to have been practiced long before the Vedic period (see Vedic entries). There is archeological evidence suggesting its sources, or at least its presence, in Indus Valley civilization (see Indus Valley Mythology), where the practice was perhaps associated with the deity who became Rudra-Śiva (see Rudra, Śiva), himself known as the greatest of yogis. A yogi, or yogin is one who practices yoga or who, in a more general sense, is a Hindu (see Hinduism) ascetic. A successful yogi is expected to achieve mental control by way of various types of disciplined movement and breathing. The third century CE Yoga Sūtra established yoga as a bona fide Hindu philosophical system, developing ideas originally found in the ṛg Veda (see ṛg Veda) and the Upaniṣads (see Upaniṣads). In the Bhagavadgītā (see Bhagavadgītā), Kṛṣṇa (see Kṛṣṇa) becomes the object of meditation for the yogi. The clear implication here is that yoga can be a form of devotion (see Bhakti), or worship.

General term for various spiritual disciplines in Hinduism. The word "yoga" implies "yoking" (as with oxen to the ox-cart) or "union," expressing the linking of man with divine reality. This union is a transcendental experience beyond the plane of words and ideas and has to be achieved by release from the limiting fields of physical, emotional, mental, and intellectual experience. This requires purification at all levels and according to Hindu belief might take many lifetimes, but sincere exertions in one birth should bear fruit in the next.

Yoga's widespread introduction to the West is thought to have begun with Swami Vivekananda's yoga presentation at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, 1893. Influential twentieth century yogis since then have included Ramana Maharshi, Indra Devi, Selvarajan Yesudian, Swami Sivananda, Sri Yogendra, and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, of the Transcendental Meditation movement. In the 1960s and 1970s, Richard Hittleman and Lilias Folan (of Lilias, Yoga, and You) brought yoga to the American mainstream through television. Yoga's popularity is also due to endorsements from celebrities such as Sting and Madonna. Yoga's allure as a stress reliever has also helped the practice to gain popularity with Americans who try to regain control over their hectic lifestyles. It is estimated that more than two million people throughout the world practice some discipline of yoga.

The existence of many spiritual disciplines and practices in India allowed for a multitude of forms and beliefs. Most religious systems are aligned to one or more forms of yoga, though most commonly they will emphasize one of the traditional spiritual paths. Some would judge the adoption of a particular spiritual path to be linked to age, occupation, personality, or a particular interest in life.

The six principle branches of yoga are:

Bhakti Yoga

Bhakti yoga is the path of love and devotion. An individual with an emotional temperament can transform those emotions, to be absorbed in spiritual service instead of being attached to physical or sensory gratification. Love can be centered on a familiar form of God, a great saint, or some great task in life. In bhakti yoga, the whole universe, whether animate or inanimate, is seen as permeated by divinity. Bhakti (meaning loving devotion) is the practice of self-surrender for the purpose of identifying with the source of love, the higher self.

The Hare Krishna, which became notable in the West in the last generation, follow a form of Hinduism that emphasizes this type of yoga.

Hatha Yoga

Hatha yoga is known as the path of inner power. It is the science of physical exercises most familiar to Westerners. In hatha yoga the mind, body, and spirit are linked, and the purification of the body is intended to enhance mental and spiritual development, balance, and harmony. Good physical health, however, is an essential prerequisite to the strenuous disciplines of this yoga system.

Hatha yoga consists of a number of asanas, or physical postures, that develop flexibility in associated muscle groups throughout the body, and favorably affect the tone of veins and arteries. They are also believed to improve the function of the ductless glands through persistent gentle pressure. In Patanjali's system, asana was chiefly directed to the achievement of a firm cross-legged sitting position for meditation. Other yoga authorities, however, have elaborated the stages of Patanjali yoga to meet the requirements of different temperaments, so that they may be harmonized.

The asanas differ from Western gymnastics in that they feature static postures instead of active movements, though some asanas are linked sequentially. There are theoretically some 8,400,000 asanas, of which 84 are said to be the best and 32 the most useful for good health. These are named after animals, geometic structures, mountains, or plants. An asana is considered to be mastered when the yogi can maintain the position without strain for three hours. Asanas may be supplemented by special symbolic gestures and positions called mudras.

Various cleansing techniques, called kriyas, of the nasal passages, throat, stomach, and bowels can be practiced in conjunction with asanas. Pranayama, breathing exercises, are also employed to arouse kundalini or vital energy. Some systems focus upon the arousal of kundalini as the central spiritual discipline.

Hatha yoga had largely died out in India but was revived in the nineteenth century in Maharashtra, western India, from whence it radiated out into the world during the twentieth century.

Jnana or Sankya Yoga

Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge, science, and wisdom. This begins with fine distinctions that may be evolved from careful observation; study and experiment; combining knowledge with the ability to reflect, meditate, and develop intuition. It is the way of transcendent knowledge, and is geared for those prone to intellectual curiosity, reason, and analysis.

Karma Yoga

Karma yoga is the science of karma or selfless action. Karma yoga teaches the student that all actions have inescapable consequences, some producing immediate results, others delayed results, and some bearing fruit in future lives. Emphasis is placed on altruistic actions that purify the individual soul and release it from petty desires. In karma yoga, actions are spiritualized by dedicating them to selfless service and divine will. Karma yoga calls for union with God through right action, and service for service sake, without regard for accomplishment or glory or attribution.

Mantra Yoga

Mantra yoga is the path of sacred sound. It is the science of sound vibration, prayer, and hermetic utterance. According to Hindu mystical belief, the world evolved from the essence of sound, through the diversity and intricacy of vibration and utterance.

One of the most sacred mantra s is the three-syllabled OM or AUM, origin of the universe, comparable with the Hebrew Shemhamphorash and the creative Word of God in the Gospel of John. The reading of Hindu scriptures is both begun and ended with the sacred sound AUM.

Raja Yoga

Raja Yoga is the path of stillness, whose goal is to quiet the mind through meditation to create a state of focused, unbroken concentration. It is also known as the path of spiritual science, particularly suitable for those of a more abstract or metaphysical temperament. This path combines religious study with refinement of all levels of the individual, culminating in transcendental awareness. Raja yoga is the summation of all other yogas. Ancient textbooks of hatha yoga emphasize that it should only be practiced in conjunction with raja yoga.

Other yoga paths are usually derivatives of the principle six. They include:

Asparsha Yoga

This is the yoga of non-contact. A form of jnana yoga, asparsha seeks reintegration through non-touching, avoiding all forms of contact with others.

Astanga Yoga

Astanga yoga is often known as the path of Patanjali. The sage Patanjali (ca. 200 B.C.E.) taught a comprehensive yoga system that became a spiritual school unto itself. According to Patanjali, in order to experience true reality one must transcend the body and mind. In his Yoga Sutras he outlined the following special stages:

yama and niyama-ethical restraints and moral observations.
asana-physical postures.
pranayama-breathing exercises. This uses various cleansing techniques of the nasal passages, throat, stomach, and bowels; it is used to enhance the pranayama.
pratyahara-sense withdrawal.
dharana-concentration.
dhyana-meditation.
samadhi-superconsciousness.

Japa Yoga

A branch of mantra yoga, japa (meaning recitation) yoga emphasizes repetition of prayers, hymns and sacred syllables.

Kundalini Yoga

Utilizing hatha yoga and mantra yoga techniques to arouse kundalini, or divine creative energy. This path focuses on the arousal of kundalini as the central focus of spiritual exercise. Whether kundalini rising occurs because of the exercises or on its own accord remains a matter of debate.

Kriya Yoga

Based on teachings of Paramhansa Yogananda, author of Autobiography of a Yogi. Kriya yoga stresses the path to Eternal Tranquility, emphasizing the stillness of sensory input.

Laya Yoga

Laya yoga is the yoga of absorption. It underscores absorption in meditation, merging the mind and breath in the divine. In this practice the yogi immerses himself in the universe, becoming a part of the universal body.

Siddha Yoga

This path is based on the teachings of Swami Muktananda. Siddha (meaning guru) yoga emphasizes the intervention and guidance of a teacher to raise kundalini.

Tantric Yoga

A derivative of karma and bhakti yogas, tantric yoga is associated with arousal of sexual energy and its conversion into kundalini, or creative energy. It is the human reflection of the divine union between the male (shiva) and female (shakti) as aspects of the divine. It is concerned with techniques and disciplines intended to transform the sexual act into a kundalini-raising experience.

Tantric yoga has often been implicated as an arena for sexual abuses in the West. Less-than-enlightened yogis have been entangled in clandestine affairs with students, later forced to step down from the position of spiritual leader.

Yantra Yoga

Yantra yoga is a form of jnana yoga, in which meditation is accomplished through contemplation of a geometric figure.

No single pathway of yoga is regarded as an alternative to another, and many of the paths intertwine and intersect, as a means of purifying and harmonizing individual temperaments. An intellectual person might profitably concentrate on bhakti yoga or karma yoga; an emotional temperamented one might benefit from jnana yoga and hatha yoga. Likewise, the practice of hatha yoga without proper actions, devotion, and ethical codes might be harmful or result simply in gymnastics without spiritual development.

Sources:

Bernard, Theos. Hatha Yoga. London: Rider, 1950. Reprint, New York: Samuel Weiser, 1970.

Bhagavadgita of The Song Divine. Gorakhpur, India: Gita Press, 1943.

Danielou, Alain. Yoga: The Method of Re-Integration. London: Christopher Johnson, 1949. Reprint, New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1956.

Dvivedi, M. N., trans. The Yoga-Sutras of Patanjali. Adyar, Madras, India: Theosophical Publishing House, 1890.

Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambala Guide to Yoga. Boston: Shambala Publications, Inc., 1996.

——. "A Short History of Yoga." Yoga Research and Education Center 1999. http://www.yrec.org/.

Giri, Swami Satyeswarananda. "Original Kriya Yoga at a Glance." SpiritWeb 1992. http://www.spiritweb.org/. April 20, 2000.

Gopi Krishna. The Awakening of Kundalini. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1975.

The Secret of Yoga. New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

Grupta, Yogi. Yoga and Long Life. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1958.

Isherwood, Christopher, and Swami Prabhavananda, trans. The Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God. Hollywood, Calif.: Marcel Road, 1944.

Iyengar, B. K. S. Light of Yoga. New York: Schrocken Books, 1966.

Keutzer, Kurt and Narayan Prakash. "The Lineage of Swami Shivom Tirth." SpiritWeb 1996. http://www.spiritweb.org/. April 20, 2000.

Majumdar, S. M. Introduction to Yoga Principles and Practices. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1964. Reprint, Secacus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1976.

Melton, J. Gordon. New Age Encyclopedia. Detroit: Gale Research, 1990.

Mishra, Rammurti. Fundamentals of Yoga. New York: Lancer Books, 1969.

Radhakrishnan, S., trans. Bhagavad Gita. London: Allen & Unwin, 1948.

Radha, Swami Sivananda. Hatha Yoga: the Hidden Language. Boston: Timeless Books, 1989.

Rosen, Richard, "Georg Feuerstein on Reviving Yoga Research." Yoga International (July 1999): 36-43.

The Sounds of Yoga-Vedanta; Documentary of Life in an Indian Ashram. New York: Folkways Records, Long-playing record album FR 8970.

Vishnudevananda, Swami. The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga. New York: Bell Publishing, 1960. Reprint, New York: Pocket Books, 1971.

Wood, Ernest. Yoga. London, 1959. Reprint, Baltimore, Md.: Penguin, 1962.

"Yoga Paths." SpiritWeb 2000. http://www.spiritweb.org/. April 20, 2000.

Yogananda, Paramhansa. Autobiography of a Yogi. Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fellowship Publishers, 1972.

For other uses, such as Hatha Yoga or Yoga postures, see Yoga (disambiguation)

Statue of Shiva (Bangalore, India) performing Yogic meditation in the Padmasana posture.

Part of a series on Hindu philosophy

Schools Samkhya · Yoga · Nyaya · Vaisheshika · Purva Mimamsa · Vedanta (Advaita · Vishishtadvaita · Dvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda)

Persons Ancient Gautama · Jaimini · Kanada · Kapila · Markandeya · Patañjali · Valmiki · Vyasa Medieval Adi Shankara · Basava · Dnyaneshwar · Chaitanya · Kabir · Madhusudana · Madhva · Namdeva  · Nimbarka  · Ramanuja · Vedanta Desika · Tukaram · Tulsidas · Vallabha Modern Aurobindo · Coomaraswamy · Dayananda Saraswati · Gandhi · Krishnananda · Narayana Guru · Prabhupada · Ramakrishna · Ramana Maharshi · Radhakrishnan · Sivananda · Vivekananda · Yogananda ·

This box: view • talk • edit

Yoga (Sanskrit, Pāli: योग yóga) refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India.^[1] The word is associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.^[2][3][4] In Hinduism, it also refers to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, and to the goal toward which that school directs its practices.^[5][6] In Jainism it refers to the sum total of all activities—mental, verbal and physical.

Major branches of yoga in Hindu philosophy include Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Hatha Yoga.^[7][8][9] Raja Yoga, compiled in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and known simply as yoga in the context of Hindu philosophy, is part of the Samkhya tradition.^[10] Many other Hindu texts discuss aspects of yoga, including Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Shiva Samhita and various Tantras.

The Sanskrit word yoga has many meanings,^[11] and is derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj", meaning "to control", "to yoke" or "to unite."^[12] Translations include "joining", "uniting", "union", "conjunction", and "means."^[13][14][15] An alternate root from which the word yoga may be derived is "yujir samadhau", which means "contemplation" or "absorption."^[16] This translation fits better with the dualist Raja Yoga because it is through contemplation that discrimination between prakrti (nature) and purusha (pure consciousness) occurs. Outside India, the term yoga is typically associated with Hatha Yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise. Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy is called a yogi or yogini.^[17]

Contents 1 History 1.1 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 1.2 Bhagavad Gita 1.3 Hatha Yoga 2 Yoga practices in other traditions 2.1 Buddhism 2.1.1 Yogacara Buddhism 2.1.2 Ch'an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism 2.1.3 Indo-Tibetan Buddhism 2.2 Jainism 2.2.1 References in Jain canons and literature 2.3 Islam 2.4 Christianity 2.5 Tantra 3 Goal of yoga 4 References 4.1 Notes 4.2 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External links

History

Main article: History of yoga

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, while ascetic practices (tapas) are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas (900 to 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.^[18] Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 B.C.E.) sites in Pakistan depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga", according to archaeologist Gregory Possehl.^[19] Some type of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though there is no conclusive evidence.^[20]

Techniques for experiencing higher states of consciousness in meditation were developed by the shramanic traditions and in the Upanishadic tradition.^[21]

While there is no clear evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.^[22] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.^[23] Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.^[22]

The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest texts describing meditation techniques.^[24] They describe meditative practices and states which had existed before the Buddha as well as those which were first developed within Buddhism.^[25] In Hindu literature, the term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad, where it refers to control of the senses and the cessation of mental activity leading to a supreme state.^[26] Important textual sources for the evolving concept of Yoga are the middle Upanishads, (ca. 400 BCE), the Mahabharata including the Bhagavad Gita (ca. 200 BCE), and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (150 BCE).

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools.^[27][28] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school.^[29] The Yoga school as expounded by the sage Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.^[30][31] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."^[32] The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (kaivalya).^[33]

Patanjali is widely regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.^[34] Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind.^[35] Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra,^[36] which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:

योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध:
( yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ )
- Yoga Sutras 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".^[37] The use of the word nirodhaḥ in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist technical terminology and concepts play in the Yoga Sutra; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas and wove them into his system.^[38] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."^[39]

A sculpture of a Hindu yogi in the Birla Mandir, Delhi

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29^th Sutra of the 2^nd book, and is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:

1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): non-violence, non-lying, non-covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
2. Niyama (The five "observances"): purity, contentment, austerity, study, and surrender to god.
3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.
5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samādhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world to be illusion. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many individual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by all persons.^[40]

Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term yoga extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,^[41] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:^[42]

• Karma yoga: The yoga of action,
• Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion,
• Gnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.

Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge).^[43] Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.^[44]

Hatha Yoga

Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika

Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century India. Hatha Yoga differs substantially from the Raja Yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital energy (tha).^[45][46] Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga,^[47] it marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage.^[48] Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that many people associate with the word "Yoga" today.^[49]

Yoga practices in other traditions

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism and Hinduism#Meditation

The Buddha depicted in yogic meditation, Kamakura, Japan

Early Buddhism incorporated meditative absorption states.^[50] The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha.^[51] One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption should be combined with the practice of mindfulness.^[52] The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness.^[53] The Buddha also departed from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.^[54] Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the realization at death of a nondual meditative state anticipated in life. In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept ("becoming cool", "going out") were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in life.^[55]

See also: Pranayama#Buddhism

Yogacara Buddhism

Yogacara (Sanskrit: "yoga practice"^[56]), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th centuries. Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva.^[57] The Yogacara sect teaches yoga in order to reach enlightenment.^[58]

Ch'an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism

Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an"^[59]) is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.^[50] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.^[60] This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices.^[61] Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.^[62]

Indo-Tibetan Buddhism

Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound.^[63] The last six are described as "yoga yanas": Kriya yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, Mahā yoga, Anu yoga and the ultimate practice, Ati yoga.^[64] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called Charya), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.^[65] Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. Trul khor), a discipline which includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre the practitioner.^[66] The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan Yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī (Tib. tummo), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan Yoga".^[67] Chang also claims that Tibetan Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Jainism

Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in the Kayotsarga posture.

Kevala Jñāna of Mahavira in mulabandhasana posture

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd Century CE Jain text, Yoga, is the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.^[4] Umasvati calls yoga as the cause of asrava or karmic influx ^[68] as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation.^[68] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.^[69] Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism as essentially a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.^[70] Dr. Heinrich Zimmer contended that the yoga system had pre-Aryan origins which did not accept the authority of the Vedas and hence was reckoned as one of the heterodox doctrines similar to Jainism.^[71] Jain iconography depicts Jain Tirthankaras meditation in Padmasana or Kayotsarga yogic poses. Mahavira was said to have achieved Kevala Jnana "enlightenment" siting in mulabandhasana position which has the first literary mention in the Acaranga Sutra and later in Kalpasutra ^[72]

The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a strong influence of Jainism.^[73][74] This mutual influence between the Yoga philosophy and Jainism is admitted by the author Vivian Worthington who writes: "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainsim, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life." ^[75] The Indus valley seals and iconography also provide a reasonable evidence of the existence of a proto-yogic tradition akin to Jainism.^[76] More specifically, scholars and archaeologists have remarked on close similarities in the yogic and meditative postures depicted in the seals with those of various Tirthankaras: the "kayotsarga" posture of Rsabha and the mulabandhasana of Mahavira along with seals depicting meditative figure flaked by upright serpents bearing similarities to iconography of Parsva. All these are indicative of not only links between Indus Valley Civilisation and Jainism, but also show the contribution of Jainism to various yogic practices.^[77]

References in Jain canons and literature

Earliest of Jain canonical literature like Acarangasutra and texts like Niyamasara, Tattvarthasutra etc had many references on yoga as a way of life for laymen and asctics. The later texts that further elaborated on the Jain concept of yoga are as follows:

• Pujyapada (5th century CE)
  • Ishtopadesh

• Acarya Haribhadra Suri(8th cCentury CE)
  • Yogabindu
  • Yogadristisamuccaya
  • Yogasataka
  • Yogavimisika

• Acarya Joindu (8th century CE)
  • Yogasara

• Acarya Hemacandra (11th century CE)
  • Yogasastra

• Acarya Amitagati (11th century CE)
  • Yogasaraprabhrta

Islam

The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).^[78] The ancient Indian yogic text, Amritakunda, ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century.^[79]

Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslims practicing yoga, saying it had elements of "Hindu spiritual teachings" and could lead to blasphemy and is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as "insulting".^[80] Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said they would continue with their yoga classes.^[81] The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of religious mantras,^[82] and states that teachings such as uniting of a human with God is not consistent with Islamic philosophy.^[83] In a similar vein, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindu elements"^[84] These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.^[85]

In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted Yoga as a commercial venture promoting extremism- comments made in the context of Yoga practice possibly competing with and eroding participation in Islam ^[86].

The only sect of the Islam community, who have successfully incorporated yoga in their practice are the Jogi Faqirs who are Muslim converts from the Hindu Jogi caste.

Christianity

In 1989, the Vatican declared that Eastern meditation practices such as Zen and yoga can "degenerate into a cult of the body".^[87] In spite of the Vatican statement, many Roman Catholics bring elements of Yoga, Buddhism, and Hinduism into their spiritual practices.^[88]

Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga practice to be coherent to its religious background and therefore a non-Christian religious practice. It is also considered a part of the New Age movement and therefore inconsistent with Christianity.^[89]

Tantra

Main article: Tantra

Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice, an individual perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.^[90] This particular path to salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes.^[90]

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart", for meditation and worship.^[91]

Goal of yoga

The goals of yoga are varied and range from improving health to achieving Moksha.^[41] Within Jainism and the monist schools of Advaita Vedanta and Shaivism, the goal of yoga takes the form of Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realisation of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously described as entering the world of Brahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or Atman that pervades all things.^[92] For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or service to Svayam bhagavan itself may be the ultimate goal of the yoga process, where the goal is to enjoy an eternal relationship with Vishnu.^[93]

References

Notes

1. ^ For the uses of the word in Pāli literature, see Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede, Pali-English dictionary. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, page 558: [1]
2. ^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68.
3. ^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samadhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pages 1-2.
4. ^ ^{a b} Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102
5. ^ "Yoga has five principal meanings: 1) yoga as a disciplined method for attaining a goal; 2) yoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mind; 3) yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana); 4) yoga in connection with other words, such as hatha-, mantra-, and laya-, referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga; 5) yoga as the goal of yoga practice." Jacobsen, p. 4.
6. ^ Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Sāṃkhya systems", and " abstraction practised as a system (as taught by Patañjali and called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of "yoga".
7. ^ Pandit Usharbudh Arya (1985). The philosophy of hatha yoga. Himalayan Institute Press; 2nd ed.
8. ^ Sri Swami Rama (2008) The royal path: Practical lessons on yoga. Himalayan Institute Press; New Ed edition.
9. ^ Swami Prabhavananda (Translator), Christopher Isherwood (Translator), Patanjali (Author). (1996). Vedanta Press; How to know god: The yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. New Ed edition.
10. ^ Jacobsen, p. 4.
11. ^ For a list of 38 meanings of the word "yoga" see: Apte, p. 788.
12. ^ For "yoga" as derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj" with meanings of "to control", "to yoke, or "to unite" see: Flood (1996), p. 94.
13. ^ For meaning 1. joining, uniting, and 2., union, junction, combination see: Apte, p. 788.
14. ^ For "mode, manner, means", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 5.
15. ^ For "expedient, means in general", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 13.
16. ^ For "yoga" as derived from the root "yujir samadhau" rather than "yujir yoge", see Maehle p. 141
17. ^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga philosophy; an ascetic."
18. ^ Flood, p. 94.
19. ^ Possehl (2003), pp. 144-145
20. ^ See:
    • Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic position". Around the Indus in 90 Slides by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
    • Karel Werner writes that "Archeological discoveries allow us therefore to speculate with some justification that a wide range of Yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-Aryan India." Werner, Karel (1998). Yoga and Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p. 103. ISBN 9788120816091. http://books.google.com/books?id=c6b3lH0-OekC&pg=PA103. .
    • Heinrich Zimmer describes one seal as "seated like a yogi". Zimmer, Heinrich (1972). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton University Press, New Ed edition. p. 168. ISBN 978-0691017785. 
    • Thomas McEvilley writes that "The six mysterious Indus Valley seal images...all without exception show figures in a position known in hatha yoga as mulabhandasana or possibly the closely related utkatasana or baddha konasana...." McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of ancient thought. Allworth Communications. pp. 219–220. ISBN 9781581152036. http://books.google.com/books?id=Vpqr1vNWQhUC&pg=PA219. 
    • Dr. Farzand Masih, Punjab University Archaeology Department Chairman, describes a recently disovered seal as depicting a "yogi." Rare objects discovery points to ruins treasure
    • Gavin Flood disputes the idea regarding one of the seals, the so-called "Pashupati seal", writing that it isn't clear the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. Flood, pp. 28-29.
    • Geoffrey Samuel, regarding the Pashupati seal, believes that we "do not actually know how to interpret the figure, nor do we know what he or she represent."Samuel, Geoffrey (2008). The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780521695343. http://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C&pg=PA4. 
21. ^ Flood, pp. 94–95.
22. ^ ^{a b} Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 51.
23. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 56.
24. ^ Richard Gombrich, "Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo." Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 44.
25. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 50.
26. ^ Flood, p. 95. Scholars do not list the Katha Upanishad among those that can be safely described as pre-Buddhist, see for example Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur", [2]. Some have argued that it is post-Buddhist, see for example Arvind Sharma's review of Hajime Nakamura's A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), pp. 325-331. For a comprehensive examination of the uses of the Pali word "yoga" in early Buddhist texts, see Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede, "Pali-English dictionary." Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, page 558: [3]. For the use of the word in the sense of "spiritual practice" in the Dhammapada, see Gil Fronsdal, "The Dhammapada", Shambhala, 2005, pages 56, 130.
27. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.
28. ^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
29. ^ For close connection between Yoga philosophy and Samkhya, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
30. ^ For Yoga acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
31. ^ For Yoga as accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
32. ^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.
33. ^ Zimmer (1951), p. 280.
34. ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called Yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.
35. ^ For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Flood (1996), pp. 96–98.
36. ^ Patañjali (2001-02-01). "Yoga Sutras of Patañjali" (etext). Studio 34 Yoga Healing Arts. http://www.studio34yoga.com/yoga.php#reading. Retrieved 2008-11-24. 
37. ^ For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind" see: Taimni, p. 6.
38. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords. University of California Press, 1996, page 9.
39. ^ Vivekanada, p. 115.
40. ^ Stephen H. Phillips, Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "new Logic". Open Court Publishing, 1995., pages 12–13.
41. ^ ^{a b} Jacobsen, p. 10.
42. ^ "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice. The Gita also introduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti)." Flood, p. 96.
43. ^ Gambhirananda, p. 16.
44. ^ Jacobsen, p. 46.
45. ^ Living Yoga: Creating a Life Practice - Page 42 by Christy Turlington (page 42)
46. ^ Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers - Page 10 by Nancy Gerstein
47. ^ Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind - Page 6 by Frank Jude Boccio
48. ^ Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice by Mikel Burley (page 16)
49. ^ Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.
50. ^ ^{a b} Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)
51. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords. University of California Press, 1996, page 8.
52. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 73.
53. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 105.
54. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 96.
55. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 109.
56. ^ Dan Lusthaus: "What is and isn't Yogacara"
57. ^ Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun. Published 2002 (Routledge). ISBN 0700711864. pg 533
58. ^ Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804831998
59. ^ The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by William Theodore de Bary. Pgs. 207-208. ISBN 0-394-71696-5 - "The Meditation school, called Ch'an in Chinese from the Sanskrit dhyāna, is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation Zen"
60. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii)
61. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13). Translated by James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005 World Wisdom. 387 pages. ISBN 0941532895 [Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation."]
62. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)
63. ^ The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2001 ISBN 1570628955
64. ^ Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. ISBN 157062917X pg 37-38
65. ^ Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. ISBN 157062917X pg 57
66. ^ Yantra Yoga: The Tibetan Yoga of Movement by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu. Snow Lion, 2008. ISBN 1559393084
67. ^ Chang, G.C.C. (1993). Tibetan Yoga. New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1453-1, p.7
68. ^ ^{a b} Tattvarthasutra [6.2]
69. ^ Niyamasara [134-40]
70. ^ Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p.66
71. ^ Zimmer, Heinrich in (ed.) Joseph Campbell: Philosophies of India. New York: Princeton University Press, 1969 p.60
72. ^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993) Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. New York: SUNY Press, 1993 p. 7
73. ^ Zydenbos (2006) p.66
74. ^ A History of Yoga by Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge ISBN 071009258X p. 29
75. ^ Vivian Worthington (1982) p. 35
76. ^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993), p.6
77. ^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993), pp.6-9
78. ^ Situating Sufism and Yoga
79. ^ Carolina Seminar on Comparative Islamic Studies
80. ^ Top Islamic body: Yoga is not for Muslims - CNN
81. ^ [4]
82. ^ "Malaysia leader: Yoga for Muslims OK without chant", Associated Press
83. ^ [5]
84. ^ [6]
85. ^ [7]
86. ^ http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/domestic/11692086.asp?gid=244
87. ^ 1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian Meditation
88. ^ Steinfels, Peter (1990-01-07). "Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE1D61531F934A35752C0A966958260&sec=&spon=. Retrieved 2008-12-05. 
89. ^ Dr Ankerberg, John & Dr Weldon, John, Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs, Harvest House Publishers, 1996
90. ^ ^{a b} Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California Press, 1991. pp 313
91. ^ Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California Press, 1991. pp 317
92. ^ Jacobsen, p. 9.
93. ^ Brittanica Concise "Characterized by an emphasis on bhakti, its goal is to escape from the cycle of birth and death in order to enjoy the presence of Vishnu."

Sources

• Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.  (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
• Chang, G.C.C. (1993). Tibetan Yoga. New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1453-1
• Chapple, Christopher.(1993) Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. New York: SUNY Press, 1993 p. 7
• Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications 1996.
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. 
• Gambhirananda, Swami (1998). Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department. ISBN 81-7505-194-9. 
• Jacobsen, Knut A. (Editor); Larson, Gerald James (Editor) (2005). Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004147578.  (Studies in the History of Religions, 110)
• Maehle, Gregor (2006). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice & Philosophy. Novato: New World Library. ISBN 978-1-57731-606-0. 
• Müller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7661-4296-5.  Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
• Possehl, Gregory (2003). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0759101722. 
• Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. 
• Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of Yoga. Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN 81-7059-212-7. 
• Worthington, Vivian A History of Yoga 1982 Routledge ISBN 071009258X
• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India. New York, New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1.  Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell.
• Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p. 66
• [8]

Further reading

Look up yoga in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Patañjali (2001). Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. Studio 34 Yoga Healing Arts. http://www.studio34yoga.com/yoga.php#reading. 
• Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.). Calcutta: University of Calcutta. 
• Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
• Harinanda, Swami. Yoga and The Portal. Jai Dee Marketing. ISBN 0978142950. 
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. 
• Marshall, John (1931). Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjodaro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922-27. Delhi: Indological Book House.
• Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1. 
• Mittra, Dharma Sri. Asanas: 608 Yoga Poses. 1st ed. California: New World Library 2003.
• Saraswati, swami satyananda. November 2002 (12th edition). "Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha" ISBN 81-86336-14-1
• Usharabudh, Arya Pandit. Philosophy of Hatha Yoga. 2nd ed. Pennsylvania: Himalayan Institute Press 1977, 1985.
• Vivekananda, Swami (1994). Raja Yoga. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department. ISBN 81-85301-16-6.  21st reprint edition.
• Weber, Hans-Jörg L. (2007). Yogalehrende in Deutschland: eine humangeographische Studie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von netzwerktheoretischen, bildungs- und religionsgeographischen Aspekten. Heidelberg: University of Heidelberg.  http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/121/

External links

• Yoga links at the Open Directory Project

Hinduism portal

v • d • e Yoga Classic Yogas Bhakti yoga · Hatha Yoga · Jnana Yoga · Karma Yoga · Kundalini Yoga · Mantra Yoga · Raja Yoga · Yantra Yoga Other Major Yogas Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga · Integral yoga · Kriya yoga · Natya Yoga · Sahaja Yoga · Six Yogas of Naropa (Tummo) · Yoga Nidra Elements of Yoga Asana · Bandha · Chakra · Mantra · Mudra · Nadi · Prana Texts Bhagavad Gita · Yoga Sutras · Hatha Yoga Pradipika · Gheranda Samhita · Shiva Samhita Raja Yoga limbs Yama · Niyama · Asana · Pranayama · Pratyahara · Dharana · Dhyana · Samadhi Sister Practices Ayurveda · Tantra · Jyotisa(Vedic Astrology) Lists Yoga schools and their gurus · Hatha yoga postures Related topics Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine Category

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - yoga

Nederlands (Dutch)
yoga (oefeningen ter ontspanning/ meditatie), hatha yoga (filosofie uit India)

Français (French)
n. - yoga

Deutsch (German)
n. - Joga

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - γιόγκα

Italiano (Italian)
yoga

Português (Portuguese)
n. - ioga (f)

Русский (Russian)
йога (одна из систем индийской философии), система физических упражнений, применяемая йогами

Español (Spanish)
n. - yoga

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - yoga

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
瑜珈, 瑜珈术

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 瑜珈, 瑜珈術

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 요가, 요가의 수행, 유가

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 瑜伽, ヨーガ学派, ヨガ

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) يوجا ( مذهب مستمد من الفلسفه الهنديه يهدف الى السيطرة على الجسم والفكر), نوع من الرياضه الذهنيه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮תורה הינדית של פילוסופיה ופרישות להגעה לאיחוד עם רוח העולם, מערכת תרגילים גופניים ושליטה בנשימה המשמשים ביוגה, יוגה‬

If you are unable to view some languages clearly, click here.

To select your translation preferences click here.