Zen (禪 or 禅) is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism notable for its emphasis on practice and experiential wisdom—particularly as realized in the form of meditation known as
zazen—in the attainment of awakening. As such, it
de-emphasizes both theoretical knowledge and the study of
religious texts in favor of direct individual experience of one's own true nature.
A broader term is the Sanskrit word "dhyana", which exists
also in other religions in India.
The emergence of Zen as a distinct school of Buddhism was first documented in China in the
7th century CE. It is thought to have developed as an
amalgam of various currents in Mahāyāna Buddhist thought—among them the Yogācāra and
Madhyamaka philosophies and the Prajñāpāramitā literature—and of local traditions in China, particularly Taoism and Huáyán Buddhism. From China, Zen subsequently spread southwards to
Vietnam and eastwards to Korea and Japan. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, Zen also began to establish a notable presence in North America and
Europe.
Etymology
"Zen", pronounced [zeɴ] in Japanese, is the Sino-Japanese reading of the Chinese character 禅, which is pronounced [tʂʰán] (pinyin: chán) in modern
Standard Mandarin Chinese, but was likely pronounced [d͡zʲen] in Middle Chinese.[1] The term "zen" is in fact a contraction of the seldom-used long form
zenna (禅那; Mandarin: chánnà), a derivation from the Sanskrit term
dhyāna (Pāli: jhāna), which refers to a
specific type or aspect of meditation. While "Zen" is the name most commonly known worldwide, it is also known as Chán in
China, Seon in Korea, and Thiền in Vietnam.
Zen teachings and practices
Basis
Zen, in contrast to many other religions, as a means to deppen the practice could be seen as fiercely anti-philosophical, anti-prescriptive and anti-theoretical. Nonetheless, Zen is deeply rooted in both the
teachings of the Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama and Mahāyāna Buddhist thought and philosophy.
One of the core Soto Zen practices is zazen, or seated meditation, recalls
both the posture in which the Buddha is said to have achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi
tree at Bodh Gaya, and the elements of mindfulness
and concentration which are part of the Eightfold
Path as taught by the Buddha. All of the Buddha's fundamental teachings—among them the Eightfold Path, the
Four Noble Truths, the idea of dependent
origination, the five precepts, the five
aggregates, and the three marks of existence—also make up important
elements of the perspective that Zen takes for it´s practice.
Additionally, as a development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Zen draws many of its basic driving concepts, particularly the
bodhisattva ideal, from that school. Uniquely Mahāyāna figures such as Guānyīn, Mañjuśrī, Samantabhadra, and
Amitābha are venerated alongside the historical Buddha. Despite Zen's emphasis on trasmition
out side scriptures, it has drawn heavily on the Mahāyāna sūtras, particularly the
Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sūtra,Hredaya Pranyaparamita the Sūtra of the Perfection of Wisdom of the Diamond that Cuts through Illusion, The Vajrachedika
Pranyaparamita the Lankavatara Sūtra, and the "Samantamukha Parivarta" section
of the Lotus Sūtra.
Zen has also itself paradoxically produced a rich corpus of written literature which has become a part of its practice and
teaching. Among the earliest and most widely studied of the specifically Zen texts, dating back to at least the 9th century CE, is the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch,
sometimes attributed to Huìnéng. Others include the various collections of kōans and the Shōbōgenzō of Dōgen
Zenji.
Zen training emphasizes daily life practice, along with intensive periods of meditation. Practicing with others is an integral
part of Zen practice. In explaining Zen Buddhism, Japanese Zen teachers have made the point that Zen is a "way of
life"[citation needed]. D.T. Suzuki wrote that aspects of this life are: a life of humility; a life of labor; a life of
service; a life of prayer and gratitude; and a life of meditation.[2] The Chinese Chan master Baizhang (720–814 CE) left behind a famous saying which had
been the guiding principle of his life, "A day without work is a day without food."[3]
D.T. Suzuki asserted that satori (awakening) has always been the goal of every school
of Buddhism, but that which distinguished the Zen tradition as it developed in China, Korea, and Japan was a way of life
radically different from that of Indian Buddhists. In India, the tradition of the mendicant (bhikkhu) prevailed, but in China social circumstances led to the development of a temple and training-center
system in which the abbot and the monks all performed mundane tasks. These included food gardening or farming, carpentry,
architecture, housekeeping, administration, and the practice of folk medicine. Consequently, the enlightenment sought in Zen had
to stand up well to the demands and potential frustrations of everyday life.[citation needed]
Zazen
-
Zen sitting meditation, the core of soto-zen practice, is called zazen in Japanese (坐禅; Chinese tso-chan [Wade-Giles] or zuochan [Pinyin]). During zazen,
practitioners usually assume a sitting position such as the lotus, half-lotus, Burmese,
or seiza postures. Awareness is directed towards one's posture and breathing. Often, a square or
round cushion (zafu, 座蒲) placed on a padded mat (zabuton, 座布団) is used to sit on; in some cases, a chair may be used. In Rinzai Zen practitioners typically sit facing the center of the room; while Soto practitioners
traditionally sit facing a wall.
In Soto Zen, shikantaza meditation ("just-sitting", 只管打坐) that is, a meditation with no
objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts,
allowing them to arise and pass away without interference. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological
justification of this practice can be found throughout Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō, as for example in the "Principles of
Zazen"[4] and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for
Zazen"[5]. Rinzai Zen, instead, emphasizes attention to the
breath and koan practice (q.v.).
The amount of time spent daily in zazen by practitioners varies. Dogen recommends that five
minutes or more daily is beneficial for householders. The key is daily
regularity, as Zen teaches that the ego will naturally resist, and the discipline of regularity is essential. Practicing Zen
monks may perform four to six periods of zazen during a normal day, with each period lasting 30 to 40 minutes. Normally, a
monastery will hold a monthly retreat period (sesshin), lasting between one and seven days.
During this time, zazen is practiced more intensively: monks may spend four to eight hours in meditation each day, sometimes
supplemented by further rounds of zazen late at night.
Meditation as a practice can be applied to any posture. Walking meditation is called kinhin.
Successive periods of zazen are usually interwoven with brief periods of walking meditation to relieve the legs.
The teacher
Because the Zen tradition emphasizes direct communication over scriptural study, the Zen teacher has traditionally played a
central role. Generally speaking, a Zen teacher is a person ordained in any tradition of Zen to teach the Dharma, guide students of meditation, and perform rituals. An important concept for all Zen sects is the notion
of Dharma transmission the claim of a line of authority that goes back to
Śākyamuni Buddha via the teachings of each successive master to each successive student. This concept relates to the ideas
expressed in a description of Zen attributed to Bodhidharma:
- A special transmission outside the scriptures; (教外別傳)
- No dependence upon words and letters; (不立文字)
- Direct pointing to the human mind; (直指人心)
- Seeing into one's own nature and attaining Buddhahood. (見性成佛)[6]
The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki
(1949:168) contends was invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige.
John McRae’s study “Seeing Through Zen” explores this assertion of lineage as a distinctive and central aspect of Zen
Buddhism. He writes of this “genealogical” approach so central to Zen’s self-understanding, that while not without precedent, has
unique features. It is “relational (involving interaction between individuals rather than being based solely on individual
effort), generational (in that it is organized according to parent-child, or rather teacher-student, generations) and reiterative
(i.e., intended for emulation and repetition in the lives of present and future teachers and students.”
McRae offers a detailed criticism of lineage, but he also notes it is central to Zen. So much so that it is hard to envision
any claim to Zen that discards claims of lineage. Therefore, for example, in Japanese Soto, lineage charts become a central part
of the Sanmatsu, the documents of Dharma transmission. And it is common for daily chanting in Zen temples and monasteries
to include the lineage of the school.
In Japan during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868), some came to question the lineage system
and its legitimacy. The Zen master Dokuan Genko (1630–1698), for example, openly questioned the
necessity of written acknowledgment from a teacher, which he dismissed as "paper Zen." Quite a number of teachers in Japan during
the Tokugawa period did not adhere to the lineage system; these were termed mushi dokugo (無師獨悟, "independently enlightened
without a teacher") or jigo jisho (自悟自証, "self-enlightened and self-certified"). Modern Zen Buddhists also consider
questions about the dynamics of the lineage system, inspired in part by academic research into the history of Zen.
Honorific titles associated with teachers typically include, in Chinese, Fashi (法師) or Chanshi (禪師); in Korean,
Sunim (an honorofic for a monk or nun) and Seon Sa (선사); in Japanese, Osho (和尚),
Roshi (老師), or Sensei
(先生); and in Vietnamese, Thầy. Note that many of these titles are not specific to Zen but are used
generally for Buddhist priests; some, such as sensei are not even specific to Buddhism.
The English term Zen master is often used to refer to important teachers, especially ancient and medieval ones.
However, there is no specific criterion by which one may be called a Zen master. The term is less common in reference to modern
teachers. In the Open Mind Zen School, English terms have been substituted for the Japanese ones to avoid confusion of this
issue. "Assistant Zen Teacher" is a person authorized to begin to teach, but still under the supervision of his teacher. "Zen
Teacher" applies to one authorized to teach without further direction, and "Zen Master" refers to one who is a Zen Teacher and
has founded his or her own teaching center.
Koan practice
-
Zen Buddhists of the Rinzai school practice meditation on koans during zazen. A koan (literally "public case") is a story or dialogue, generally related to Zen or other
Buddhist history; the most typical form is an anecdote involving early Chinese Zen masters. Koan practice is particularly
emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other forms of Zen.
These anecdotes involving famous Zen teachers are a practical demonstration of their wisdom, and can be used to test a
student's progress in Zen practice. Koans often appear paradoxical or linguistically meaningless
dialogues or questions. Answering a koan requires a student to let go of conceptual thinking and of the logical way we order the
world.
The Zen student's mastery of a given koan is presented to the teacher in a private interview, referred to as dokusan (独参), daisan (代参), or sanzen (参禅). Zen teachers advise that the problem posed by a
koan is to be taken quite seriously, and to be approached as literally a matter of life and death. While there is no unique
answer to a koan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the koan and of Zen through their responses.
The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. There are also various
commentaries on koans, written by experienced teachers, that can serve as a guide. These commentaries are also of great value to
modern scholarship on the subject.
Chanting and liturgy
A practice in many Zen monasteries and centers is a daily liturgy service. Practitioners chant major sutras such as the
Heart Sutra, the Avalokiteshvara Sutra, the Song of the
Jewel Mirror Awareness, the Great Compassionate Heart Dharani (Daihishin
Dharani)[7], and other minor mantras.
The Butsudan is the altar in a monastery where offerings are made to the images of the
Buddha or Bodhisattvas. The same term is also used in Japanese homes for the altar where one
prays to and communicates with deceased family members. As such, reciting liturgy in Zen can be seen as a means to connect with
the Bodhisattvas of the past. Liturgy is often used during funerals, memorials, and other special events as means to invoke the
aid of supernatural powers.
Chanting usually centers on major Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara (Japanese: Kannon or Kanzeon) and Manjusri (Japanese:
Monju). These celestial beings have taken extraordinary vows to liberate all beings from Samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth), while remaining in Samsara themselves. Since the Zen practitioner’s aim is to walk the Bodhisattva path, chanting can
be used as a means to connect with these beings and realize this ideal within oneself. By repeatedly chanting the Avalokiteshvara
sutra (観世音菩薩普門品, Kanzeon Bosatsu Fumonbon?), for example, one
instills the Bodhisattva's ideals into ones mind. The ultimate goal is given in the end of the sutra, which states, "In the
morning, be one with Avalokiteshvara, In the evening, be one with
Avalokiteshvara,"[8], Through the realization of the
Emptiness of oneself, and the Mahayanist ideal of Buddha-nature in all things, one understands that there is no difference between the cosmic bodhisattva
and oneself. The wisdom and compassion of the Boddhisattva one is chanting to is seen to equal the inner wisdom and compassion of
the practitioner. Thus, the duality between subject and object, practitioner and Bodhisattva, chanter and sutra is ended.
One modern day Roshi justifies the use of chanting sutras by referring to zen master Dogen.[9], Dogen is known to have refuted
the statement "Painted rice cakes will not satisfy hunger". This means that sutras, which are just symbols like painted rice
cakes, cannot truly satisfy one's spiritual hunger. Dogen, however, saw that there is no separation between metaphor and reality.
"There is no difference between paintings, rice cakes, or any thing at all" [10]. The symbol and the symbolized were inherently the same, and thus only the sutras could truly
satisfy one's spiritual needs.
To understand this non-dual relationship experientially, one is told to practice liturgy Intimately [11]. In distinguishing between ceremony and liturgy, Dogen states, "In ceremony there are forms and there are sounds, there is understanding and there is believing. In
liturgy there is only intimacy." The practitioner is instructed to listen to and speak liturgy not just with one sense, but with
one's "whole body-and-mind". By listening with one's entire being, one eliminates the space between the self and the liturgy.
Thus, Dogen's instructions are to "listen with the eye and see with the ear". By focusing all of one's being on one specific
practice, duality is transcended. Dogen says, "Let go of the eye, and the whole body-and-mind are nothing but the eye; let go of
the ear, and the whole universe is nothing but the ear." Chanting intimately thus allows one to experience a non-dual reality.
The liturgy used is a tool to allow the practitioner to transcend the old conceptions of self and other. In this way, intimate
liturgy practice allows one to realize Sunyata, or emptiness, which is at the heart of Buddhist teachings.
Other techniques
There are other techniques common in the Zen tradition which seem unconventional and whose purpose is said to be to shock a
student in order to help him or her let go of habitual activities of the mind. Some of these are common today, while others are
found mostly in anecdotes. These include the loud belly shout known as katsu. It is
common in many Zen traditions today for Zen teachers to have a stick with them during formal ceremonies which is a symbol of
authority and which can be also used to strike on the table during a talk.
Mythology
Within Zen, and thus from an emic perspective, the origins of Zen Buddhism are ascribed
to what is called the Flower Sermon, in which Śākyamuni Buddha is supposed to have passed on special insight to the disciple
Mahākāśyapa. The sermon itself was a wordless one in which Śākyamuni merely held up a
flower before the assembled disciples, among whom there was no reaction apart from Mahākāśyapa, who smiled. The smile is said to
have signified Mahākāśyapa's understanding, and Śākyamuni acknowledged this by saying:
I possess the true Dharma eye, the marvelous mind of Nirvana, the true form of the formless, the subtle dharma gate that does
not rest on words or letters but is a special transmission outside of the scriptures. This I entrust to Mahākāśyapa.[12]
Thus, a way within Buddhism developed which concentrated on direct experience rather than on rational creeds or revealed
scriptures. Zen is a method of meditative religion which seeks to enlighten people in the manner that the Mahākāśyapa
experienced.[13]
In the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) of Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713)[14]—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, the 6th
patriarch of Chan Buddhism—it is written that Bodhidharma was the 28th patriarch in a line of descent from Mahākāśyapa, a
disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha, and the first patriarch of Chan Buddhism:
- Mahākāśyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;
- Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;
- The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;
- And Bodhidharma became the First Father here:
- His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,
- And by them many minds came to see the Light.[15]
The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki
(1949:168) contends was invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige. The earliest source for the legend
of the "Flower sermon" is from 11th century China.[16].
Early history
- See also: Silk Road transmission of
Buddhism
Zen developed as an amalgam of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism.[17] Dumoulin (2005) argues that Zen also has roots in yogic practices, specifically kammaṭṭhāna, the consideration of objects, and kasiṇa, total fixation
of the mind.
The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoic
faiths, Taoism in particular.[18] Buddhism's scriptures
were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary, because it was originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism.[19] In the Tang period
Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and
collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese
Buddhism.[20]
The establishment of Zen is traditionally credited to the monk Bodhidharma (ca 500 CE), who is recorded as having come to
China to teach a "special transmission outside scriptures" which "did not rely upon words". Bodhidharma settled in the
kingdom of Wei where he took as disciples Daoyu and Huike.
Shortly before his death, Bodhidharma appointed Huike to succeed him, making Huike the first Chinese patriarch and the second
patriarch of Zen in China. The transmission then passed to the second patriarch (Huike), the third
(Sengcan), the fourth patriarch (Dao Xin) and the fifth
patriarch (Hongren). The sixth and last patriarch, Huineng
(638–713), was one of the giants of Zen history, and all surviving schools regard him as their ancestor. However, the dramatic
story of Huineng's life tells that there was a controversy over his claim to the title of patriarch: after being chosen by
Hongren, the fifth patriarch, he had to flee by night to Nanhua
Temple in the south to avoid the wrath of Hongren's jealous senior disciples. In the middle of the 8th century, monks claiming to be the successors to Huineng, calling themselves the Southern school, cast
themselves in opposition to those claiming to succeed Hongren's student Shenxiu (神秀). It is
commonly held that at this point—the debates between these rival factions—that Zen enters the realm of fully documented history.
The Southern school eventually became predominant and their rivals died out. Modern scholarship, however, has questioned this
narrative.
The following are the six Patriarchs of Zen (Chan) in China as listed in traditional sources:
- Bodhidharma (達摩, Chinese: Damo,
Japanese: Daruma) about 440 - about 528
- Huike (慧可, Japanese: Eka) 487 - 593
- Sengcan (僧燦, Japanese: Sōsan) ? -
606
- Daoxin (道信, Japanese: Dōshin) 580 - 651
- Hongren (弘忍, Japanese: Kōnin) 601 - 674
- Huineng (慧能, Japanese: Enō) 638 - 713
Chan (Zen) in China
- See also: Buddhism in China
In the following centuries, Chan grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism
and, despite its "transmission beyond the scriptures", produced the largest body of literature in Chinese history of any sect or
tradition. The teachers claiming Huineng's posterity began to branch off into numerous different schools, each with their own
special emphasis, but all of which kept the same basic focus on meditational practice, personal instruction and personal
experience.
During the late Tang and the Song periods, the tradition continued, as a wide number of
eminent teachers, such as Mazu (Wade-Giles:
Ma-tsu; Japanese: Baso), Shitou (Shih-t'ou;
Japanese: Sekito), Baizhang (Pai-chang;
Japanese: Hyakujo), Huangbo (Huang-po;
Jap.: Obaku), Linji (Lin-chi; Jap.: Rinzai), and Yunmen (Jap.: Ummon) developed specialized teaching methods, which would variously become characteristic of
the five houses (五家) of Chan. The traditional five houses were Caodong (曹洞宗),
Linji (臨濟宗), Guiyang (潙仰宗), Fayan
(法眼宗), and Yunmen (雲門宗). This list does not include earlier schools such as the Hongzhou (洪州宗) of Mazu.
Over the course of Song Dynasty (960–1279), the Guiyang, Fayan, and
Yunmen schools were gradually absorbed into the Linji. During the same period, the various developments of Chan teaching methods
crystallized into the gong-an (koan) practice which is unique to this school of Buddhism. According
to Miura and Sasaki, "it was during the lifetime of Yüan-wu's successor, Ta-hui Tsung-kao 大慧宗杲 (Daie Sōkō, 1089-1163) that Koan Zen entered its determinative stage."[21] Gong-an practice was prevalent in the Linji school, to which
Yuanwu and Ta-hui (pinyin: Dahui) belonged, but it was also
employed on a more limited basis by the Caodong school. The teaching styles and words of the classical masters were collected in
such important texts as the Blue Cliff Record (1125) of Yuanwu, The Gateless Gate (1228) of Wumen, both of the Linji lineage, and the Book
of Equanimity (1223) of Wansong, of the Caodong lineage.
These texts record classic gong-an cases, together with verse and prose commentaries, which would be studied by later generations
of students down to the present.
Chan continued to be influential as a religious force in China, and thrived in the post-Song period; with a vast body of texts
being produced up and through the modern period. While traditionally distinct, Chan was taught alongside Pure Land Buddhism in
many Chinese Buddhist monasteries. In time much of the distinction between them was lost, and many masters taught both Chan and
Pure Land. Chan Buddhism enjoyed something of a revival in the Ming Dynasty with teachers such as Hanshan Deqing (憨山德清), who wrote and taught extensively on both Chan and Pure Land Buddhism; Miyun Yuanwu (密雲圓悟), who came to be seen posthumously as the first patriarch of the Obaku Zen school; as well as Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲株宏) and
Ouyi Zhixu (藕溢智旭).
After further centuries of decline, Chan was revived again in the early 20th century by Hsu
Yun, a well-known figure of 20th century Chinese Buddhism. Many Chan teachers today trace their lineage back to Hsu Yun,
including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chan
in the west where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st century.
It was severely repressed in China during the recent modern era with the appearance of the People's Republic, but has more recently been re-asserting itself on the mainland, and has a
significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among
Overseas Chinese.
Zen in Japan
The schools of Zen that currently exist in Japan are the Sōtō
(曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Obaku (黃檗). Of these, Sōtō is the largest and Obaku the smallest.
Rinzai is itself divided into several subschools based on temple affiliation, including Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji,
Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji.
Although the Japanese had known Zen-like practices for centuries (Taoism and Shinto), it was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myōan
Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which is known in Japan as Rinzai. Decades later, Nanpo Jomyo (南浦紹明) also
studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most
influential branch of Rinzai. In 1215, Dogen, a younger contemporary
of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong
Rujing. After his return, Dogen established the Sōtō school,
the Japanese branch of Caodong. The Obaku lineage was introduced in the 17th century by
Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of
Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan
following the fall of the Ming Dynasty to the Manchus, his
teachings were seen as a separate school. The Obaku school was named for Mount Obaku
(Chinese: Huangboshan), which had been Ingen's home in China.
Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Daiun Harada and
Shunryu Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty
rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attain realization. They assert
that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has
largely been reduced to officiating at funerals[citation needed].
The Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers— has been
criticized for its involvement in Japanese militarism and nationalism during World War II and the preceding period. A notable
work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian
Victoria, an American-born Sōtō priest. At the same time, however, one must be aware that this involvement was by no means
limited to the Zen school: all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. What may be most striking,
though, as Victoria has argued, is that many Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of "world peace"
were open nationalists in the inter-war years.
This openness has allowed non-Buddhists to practice Zen, especially outside of Asia, and even for the curious phenomenon of an
emerging Christian Zen lineage, as well as one or two lines that call themselves "nonsectarian." With no official governing body,
it's perhaps impossible to declare any authentic lineage "heretical." Some schools emphasize lineage and trace their line of
teachers back to China, Japan, Korea, or Vietnam; other schools do not[citation needed].
Thiền (Zen) in Vietnam (Thien Buddhism)
- See also: Buddhism in
Vietnam
Thiền Buddhism (禪宗 Thiền Tông) is the Vietnamese name for the school of Zen
Buddhism. Thien is ultimately derived from Chan Zong 禪宗 (simplified, 禅宗), itself a derivative of the Sanskrit "Dhyāna".
According to traditional accounts of Vietnam, in 580, an Indian
monk named Vinitaruci (Vietnamese: Tì-ni-đa-lưu-chi)
travelled to Vietnam after completing his studies with Sengcan, the third patriarch of Chinese
Zen. This, then, would be the first appearance of Vietnamese Zen, or Thien (thiền) Buddhism. The sect that Vinitaruci and his
lone Vietnamese disciple founded would become known as the oldest branch of Thien. After a period of obscurity, the Vinitaruci
School became one of the most influential Buddhist groups in Vietnam by the 10th century,
particularly so under the patriarch Vạn-Hạnh (died 1018). Other
early Vietnamese Zen schools included the Vo Ngon Thong (Vô Ngôn Thông), which was associated
with the teaching of Mazu, and the Thao Duong (Thảo Đường), which incorporated
nianfo chanting techniques; both were founded by Chinese monks. A new school was founded
by one of Vietnam's religious kings; this was the Truc Lam (Trúc Lâm) school, which evinced a
deep influence from Confucian and Taoist philosophy.
Nevertheless, Truc Lam's prestige waned over the following centuries as Confucianism became dominant in the royal court. In the
17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyen
Thieu (Nguyên Thiều) established a vigorous new school, the Lam Te (Lâm Tế), which is the
Vietnamese pronunciation of Linji. A more domesticated offshoot of Lam Te, the Lieu Quan
(Liễu Quán) school, was founded in the 18th century and has since been the predominant
branch of Vietnamese Zen.
The most famous practitioner of synchronized Thiền Buddhism in the West is Thích Nhất Hạnh
who has authored dozens of books.
Seon (Zen) in Korea
- See also: Korean Buddhism
Seon was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla period (8th and 9th centuries) as Korean monks of predominantly
Hwaeom (華嚴) and Consciousness-only (唯識) background
began to travel to China to learn the newly developing tradition. During his lifetime, Mazu had begun to attract students from Korea; by tradition, the first
Korean to study Seon was named Peomnang (法朗). Mazu's successors had numerous Korean students,
some of whom returned to Korea and established the nine mountain (九山) schools.
This was the beginning of Chan in Korea which is called Seon.
Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk
Jinul (知訥) (
