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Zeno of Citium

 
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Zeno of Citium
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(born c. 335, Citium, Cyprus — died c. 263 BC, Athens) Greek philosopher, founder of Stoicism. He went to Athens c. 312 BC and attended lectures by the Cynics Crates of Thebes (fl. late 4th century BC) and Stilpon of Megara (c. 380 – 300 BC), as well as lectures at the Academy. He began to teach in the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Colonnade"), whence the name of his philosophy. His system included logic, epistemology, physics, and ethics. He taught that happiness lies in conforming the will to the divine reason, which governs the universe. In logic and epistemology he was influenced by Antisthenes (c. 445 – 365 BC) and Diodorus Cronus (fl. 4th century BC), in physics by Heracleitus. Only fragmentary quotations from his many treatises have survived.

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Biography: Zeno of Citium
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The Greek philosopher Zeno of Citium (335-263 B.C.) was the founder of Stoicism. His teachings had a profound influence throughout the ancient world and in important respects helped pave the way for Christianity.

Zeno the son of Mnaseas, was born in the Cypriot town of Citium and may have been part Semitic. His education, however, was thoroughly Greek, and he went to Athens about 313 B.C., where he attended the lectures of various philosophers, including Crates the Cynic, Stilpo, Xenocrates, and Polemo. Crates was his most important early master, and his first book, the Republic, was Cynic in inspiration and viewpoint. He took what he thought was the best of his masters' teachings and developed a complete philosophical system of his own. His followers were at first called Zenonians, but the name Stoics, which derived from the Stoa Poikile where Zeno taught, proved more popular. He was greatly respected at Athens and was honored by the Athenians with a golden crown and a bronze statue. He was also on good terms with the king of Macedon, Antigonus Gonatas, and was invited to live at the court in Pella. He declined the offer, although he did send two of his followers. Diogenes Laertius, who wrote a biography of Zeno in the 3d century A.D., preserves the titles of several of his works, although all have perished. In addition to the Republic, these include Life according to Nature, On Appetite (or The Nature of Man), On Becoming, On the Doctrines of the Pythagoreans, On Problems Relating to Homer, On Art, Memorabilia, and the Ethics of Crates.

His Philosophy

Zeno's philosophical system embraced physics, logic, and ethics. Its greatest strength lay not in the elaborate but false theories set forth as explanations for the make-up of the universe, but in the almost evangelical message of its ethics. Man, in Zeno's view, had the key to true happiness within himself. He must identify with Nature (or Zeus or Providence or the Cosmos, for all were used interchangeably) and strive for self-sufficiency, which meant the rejection of all the external goods and values men traditionally cherished. In place of these, the divine reason given to every person must be cultivated toward the understanding and acceptance of God's universe. Social position was unimportant, and it was possible for the pauper or the king to strive toward the Stoic goal. The true Stoic sage was aware of the laws of Nature and followed them willingly because a beneficent Providence was guiding events. Individual suffering and misfortunes were subsumed under a larger and more important good. The ultimate goal was apathia, a state in which a person was completely indifferent to all but his own divinely given understanding of things. Virtue was defined as knowledge and vice as ignorance. The path to virtue was not easy, however. It demanded tough discipline and strict control over natural feelings and reactions such as pleasure, lust, anxiety, and fear. It also demanded a great deal of study of both theory and practical science, for only through complete awareness of the truth of the material world could the Stoic sage come to that understanding which gave him happiness.

Stoic physics and logic followed Heraclitus, Aristotle, and the two Socratic thinkers Antisthenes and Diodorus. It was an eclectic system which mixed a corporeal universe with an ultimate divine reason. God, the divine and beneficent reason behind all things, was originally one and the same with Fire, the basis of the physical universe. Through an elaborate process of separation, God willed Himself apart from corporeality and caused the chain of events which we know as the history of the universe. At some specific moment in the future, He will take corporeality back unto Himself in a mighty conflagration. This process will repeat itself infinitely and history will repeat itself exactly an endless number of times. Man's freedom in such a totally predetermined chain of causation is possible only through the independence of his mind, which bears the same relationship to his body as does God to the corporeal universe. Through reason man may come to an understanding and acceptance of the way things are and may willingly comply with Nature. Ignorance of the truth leads to vain hopes and expectations, and the ignorant man is condemned to a life of blindness. It can be readily seen from the Stoic view of a beneficent God at work in a completely preordained universe that Stoicism was among the first philosophical systems to claim that this is the best of all possible worlds.

Zeno's successors as leaders of the Stoa were Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Zeno of Tarsus, Diogenes the Babylonian, Panaetius of Rhodes, Posidonius, and Hecaton. The Stoic system, with its emphasis on fortitude and discipline, appealed to the Romans and became the most widely accepted Greek philosophy among the Roman ruling classes. Greek and Roman writers in imperial times came to identify the good Roman emperors, such as Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, with the Stoic king, and the evil emperors, such as Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, with the depraved tyrant. Marcus Aurelius was the emperor who most obviously accepted Stoicism as a way of life, and his collection of personal memoirs bears eloquent witness to the appeal which Zeno's system had to a fine and sensitive mind.

With the demise of the city-states and the concomitant failure of the older and simpler religious views to satisfy men's new spiritual needs in a time of changing values, Zeno's philosophical teachings imparted a sense of worth and dignity to the lives of great numbers of men. The striking similarities between Stoicism and Christianity made it one of the important precursors of that religion in antiquity.

Further Reading

An excellent introduction to Zeno and the Stoic school is in Moses Hadas, ed., Essential Works of Stoicism (1961). A more critical summary of Stoic theory and teachings is in Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, revised by Wilhelm Nestle and translated by L. R. Palmer (1955). Briefer treatments of Zeno are in the surveys of ancient philosophy, such as Gordon H. Clark, ed., Selections from Hellenistic Philosophy (1940), and Arthur H. Armstrong, An Introduction to Ancient Philosophy (1947; 4th ed. 1965).

Philosophy Dictionary: Zeno of Citium
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(c. 335-263 BC) The founder of Stoicism, Zeno was a Phoenician born on Cyprus, who came to Athens in 313 and was said to have been a pupil of Crates the Cynic. He turned to Socratic philosophy, and gradually evolved the unified metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics that make up the Stoical system.

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: Zeno of Citium
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Zeno of Citium (zē'nō, sĭsh'ēəm), c.334-c.262 B.C., Greek philosopher, founder of Stoicism. He left Cyprus and went to Athens, where he studied under the Cynics, whose teachings left an important impression on his own thought. Although his works have not survived, it is known that Zeno divided philosophy into logic, physics, and ethics, and taught that the first two must serve the last. He attempted to base his stern ethical system on the metaphysical and scientific teachings of Heraclitus, Aristotle, and others, and to forge from these elements a consistent philosophy. Zeno taught in Athens at the Stoa Poecile [Gr.,=painted porch]; his followers therefore came to be known as "Stoics," and his school as "the Porch."
Quotes By: Citium Zeno
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Quotes:

"No evil is honorable: but death is honorable; therefore death is not evil."

"Fate is the endless chain of causation, whereby things are; the reason or formula by which the world goes on."

"Wellbeing is attained by little and little, and nevertheless is no little thing itself."

Wikipedia: Zeno of Citium
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This article is about the Greek philosopher. For other uses, see Zeno.
Not to be confused with Zeno of Elea.
Zeno of Citium
Western Philosophy
Ancient philosophy

Zeno of Citium
Full name Zeno of Citium
Born c. 334 BC
Citium, Cyprus
Died c. 262 BC
Athens
School/tradition Stoicism
Main interests Logic, Physics, Ethics
Notable ideas Founder of Stoicism

Zeno of Citium (Greek: Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς, Zēnōn ho Kitieŭs; 334 BC - 262 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Citium (Greek: Κίτιον), Cyprus. Zeno was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy which he taught in Athens, from about 300 BC. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on the goodness and peace of mind which would arise from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature. It would prove to be very successful, and flourished as the dominant philosophy from the Hellenistic period through to the Roman era.

Contents

Life

Zeno was born c. 334 BC,[a] in Citium in Cyprus. Most of the details we know about his life come from the anecdotes preserved by Diogenes Laërtius in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. Zeno was the son of a Phoenician merchant and was a merchant himself,[1] when he came to Athens to learn philosophy,[2] at the age of 22.[3] The story goes that, after a shipwreck, Zeno wandered into a bookshop in Athens and was attracted to some writings about Socrates. He asked the librarian how to find such a man. In response, the librarian pointed to Crates of Thebes, the most famous Cynic living at that time in Greece.[4] Zeno is described as a haggard, tanned person,[5] living a spare, ascetic life.[6] This coincides with the influences of Cynic teaching, and was, at least in part, continued in his Stoic philosophy. In one incident during his tutelage with Crates, he was made to carry a pot of lentil soup around the city. After Zeno began carrying the pot, Crates smashed it with his staff, splattering the lentil soup all over his surprised student. When Zeno began to run off in embarrassment, Crates chided, "Why run away, my little Phoenician? Nothing terrible has befallen you!"[7]

Apart from Crates, Zeno studied under the philosophers of the Megarian school, including Stilpo,[8] and the dialecticians Diodorus Cronus,[9] and Philo.[10] He is also said to have studied Platonist philosophy under the direction of Xenocrates,[11] and Polemo.[12]

Zeno began teaching in the colonnade in the Agora of Athens known as the Stoa Poikile in 301 BC. His disciples were initially called Zenonians, but eventually they came to be known as Stoics, a name which had been previously applied to poets who had congregated in the Stoa Poikile.[13]

Among the admirers of Zeno was king Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia,[14] who, whenever he came to Athens, would visit Zeno. Zeno is said to have declined an invitation to visit Antigonus in Macedonia, although their supposed correspondence preserved by Laërtius[15] is undoubtably the invention of a later rhetorician. Zeno instead sent his friend and disciple Persaeus,[15] who had lived with Zeno in his house.[16] Among Zeno's other pupils there were Aristo of Chios, Sphaerus, and Cleanthes who succeeded Zeno as the head (scholarch) of the Stoic school in Athens.[17]

Zeno is said to have declined Athenian citizenship when it was offered to him, fearing that he would appear unfaithful to his native land Phoenicia,[18] where he was highly esteemed.[19] We are also told that Zeno was of an earnest, if not gloomy disposition;[20] that he preferred the company of the few to the many;[21] that he was fond of burying himself in investigations;[22] and that he had a dislike to verbose and elaborate speeches.[23] Diogenes Laërtius has preserved many clever and witty remarks by Zeno,[24] the veracity of which cannot be ascertained.

Zeno died around 262 BC.[a] Laërtius reports about his death: "As he left the school, he tripped, fell and broke a toe. Hitting the ground with his hand, he cited words of Niobe: "I am coming, why do you call me thus?"[3] Since the Stoic sage was expected to always do what was appropriate (kathekon) and Zeno was very old at the time, he felt it appropriate to die and consequently strangled himself.

During his lifetime, Zeno received appreciation for his philosophical and pedagogical teachings. Amongst other things, Zeno was honored with the golden crown,[25] and a tomb was built in honor of his moral influence on the youth of his era.[26]

The crater Zeno on the Moon is named in his honor.

Philosophy

Modern bust of Zeno in Athens

Following the ideas of the Academics, Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: Logic (a very wide subject including rhetoric, grammar, and the theories of perception and thought); Physics (not just science, but the divine nature of the universe as well); and Ethics, the end goal of which was to achieve happiness through the right way of living according to Nature. Because Zeno's ideas were built upon by Chrysippus and other Stoics, it can be difficult to determine, in some areas, precisely what he thought, but his general views can be outlined:

Logic

In his treatment of Logic, Zeno was influenced by Stilpo and the other Megarians. Zeno urged the need to lay down a basis for Logic because the wise person must know how to avoid deception.[27] Cicero accused Zeno of being inferior to his philosophical predecessors in his treatment of Logic,[28] and it seems true that a more exact treatment of the subject was laid down by his successors, including Chrysippus.[29] Zeno divided true conceptions into the comprehensible and the incomprehensible,[30] permitting for free-will the power of assent (sunkatathesis) in distinguishing between sense impressions.[31] Zeno said that there were four stages in the process leading to true knowledge, which he illustrated with the example of the flat, extended hand, and the gradual closing of the fist:

Zeno stretched out his fingers, and showed the palm of his hand, - "Perception," - he said, - "is a thing like this."- Then, when he had closed his fingers a little, - "Assent is like this." - Afterwards, when he had completely closed his hand, and showed his fist, that, he said, was Comprehension. From which simile he also gave that state a name which it had not before, and called it katalepsis. But when he brought his left hand against his right, and with it took a firm and tight hold of his fist: - "Knowledge" - he said, was of that character; and that was what none but a wise person possessed.[32]

Physics

The Universe, in Zeno's view, is God:[33] a divine reasoning entity, where all the parts belong to the whole.[34] Into this pantheistic system he incorporated the physics of Heraclitus; the Universe contains a divine artisan-fire, which foresees everything,[35] and extending throughout the Universe, must produce everything:

Zeno, then, defines nature by saying that it is artistically working fire, which advances by fixed methods to creation. For he maintains that it is the main function of art to create and produce, and that what the hand accomplishes in the productions of the arts which we employ, is accomplished much more artistically by nature, that is, as I said, by artistically working fire, which is the master of the other arts.[35]

This divine fire,[31] or aether,[36] is the basis for all activity in the Universe,[37] operating on otherwise passive matter which neither increases nor diminishes itself.[38] The primary substance in the Universe comes from fire, passes through the stage of air, and then becomes water: the thicker portion becoming earth, and the thinner portion becoming air again, and then rarefying back into fire.[39] Individual souls are part of the same fire as the world-soul of the Universe.[40] Following Heraclitus, Zeno adopted the view that the Universe underwent regular cycles of formation and destruction.[41]

The Nature of the Universe is such that it accomplishes what is right and prevents the opposite,[42] and is identified with unconditional Fate,[43] while allowing it the free-will attributed to it.[35]

Ethics

Zeno, portrayed as a medieval scholar in the Nuremberg Chronicle

Like the Cynics, Zeno recognised a single, sole and simple good,[44] which is the only goal to strive for.[45] "Happiness is a good flow of life," said Zeno,[46] and this can only be achieved through the use of right Reason coinciding with the Universal Reason, (Logos) which governs everything. A bad feeling (pathos) "is a disturbance of the mind repugnant to Reason, and against Nature."[47] This consistency of soul, out of which morally good actions spring, is Virtue,[48] true good can only consist in Virtue.[49]

Zeno deviated from the Cynics in saying that things which are morally indifferent could nevertheless have value to us. Things have a relative value in proportion to how they aid the natural instinct for self-preservation.[50] That which is to be preferred is a "fitting action" (kathêkon), a designation which Zeno first introduced.[51] Self-preservation, and the things which contribute towards it, has only a conditional value; it does not aid happiness, which depends only on moral actions.[52]

Just as Virtue can only exist within the dominion of Reason, so Vice can only exist with the rejection of Reason. Virtue is absolutely opposed to Vice,[53] the two cannot exist in the same thing together, and cannot be increased or decreased;[54] no one moral action is more virtuous than another.[55] All actions are either good or bad, since impulses and desires rest upon free consent,[56] and hence even passive mental states or emotions which are not guided by Reason are immoral,[57] and produce immoral actions.[58] Zeno distinguished four negative emotions: desire, fear, pleasure and pain (epithumia, phobos, hêdonê, lupê),[59] and he was probably responsible for distinguishing the three corresponding positive emotions: will, caution, and joy (boulêsis, eulabeia, chara), with no corresponding rational equivalent for pain. All errors must be rooted out, not merely set aside,[60] and replaced with right Reason.

Works

Zeno, depicted by Raphael in The School of Athens

None of Zeno's writings have survived except as fragmentary quotations preserved by later writers. The titles of many of Zeno's writings are known; they are known to have been these:[61]

  • Ethical writings:
    • Πολιτεία - Republic
    • ἠθικά - Ethics
    • περὶ τοῦ κατὰ φύσιν βίον - On Life according to Nature
    • περὶ ὁρμῆς ἧ περὶ ἁνθρώρου φύσεως - On Impulse, or on the Nature of Humans
    • περὶ παθῶν - On Passions
    • περὶ τοῦ καθήκοντος - On Duty
    • περὶ νόμου - On Law
    • περὶ Έλληνικῆς παιδείας - On Greek Education
    • ἐρωτικὴ τέχνη - The Art of Love
  • Physical writings:
    • περὶ τοῦ ὅλου - On the Universe
    • περὶ οὐσίας - On Being
    • περὶ σημείων - On Signs
    • περὶ ὄψεως - On Sight
    • περὶ τοῦ λόγου - On the Logos
  • Logical writings:
    • διατριϐαί - Discourses
    • περὶ λεξεως - On Verbal Style
    • λύσεις, ἔλεγχοι - Solutions and Refutations
  • Other works:
    • περὶ ποιητικῆς ἀκροάσεως - On Poetical Readings
    • προϐλημάτων Όμηρικῶη πέντε - Homeric Problems
    • καθολικά - General Things
    • Άπομνημονεύματα Κράτητος - Reminiscences of Crates
    • Πυθαγορικά - Pythagorean Doctrines

The most famous of these works was Zeno's Republic, a work written in conscious imitation of (or opposition to) Plato. Although it has not survived, more is known about it than any of his other works. It outlined Zeno's vision of the ideal Stoic society built on egalitarian principles.

Notes

a. ^  The dates for Zeno's life remain controversial. According to Apollodorus, as quoted by Philodemus, Zeno died in Arrheneides' archonship (262/1 BC). According to Persaeus (Diogenes Laërtius vii. 28), Zeno lived for 72 years. His date of birth is thus 334/3 BC. A plausible chronology for his life is as follows: He was born 334/3 BC, and came to Athens in 312/11 BC at the age of 22 (Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 28). He studied philosophy for about 10 years (Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 2); opened his own school during Clearchus' archonship in 301/0 BC (Philodemus, On the Stoics, col. 4); and was the head of the school for 39 years and 3 months (Philodemus, On the Stoics, col. 4), and died 262/1 BC. For more information see William Scott Ferguson, (1911), Hellenistic Athens: An Historical Essay, page 185.; and Tiziano Dorandi, Chronology in K. Algra et al., (2005), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, page 38.

References

  1. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 2, 31
  2. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 31-32
  3. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 28
  4. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 2-3
  5. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 1
  6. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 26-27
  7. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 3
  8. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 2, 24
  9. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 16, 25
  10. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 16
  11. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 2; but note that Xenocrates died 314/13 BC
  12. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 2, 25
  13. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 5
  14. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 6-9, 13-15, 36; Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 13. 14-15; Simplicius, in Epictetus Enchiridion, 51; Aelian, Varia Historia, ix. 26
  15. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 6-9
  16. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 13, comp. 36
  17. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 37
  18. ^ Plutarch, de Stoicor. repugn, p. 1034; comp. Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 12
  19. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 6
  20. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 16, comp. 26; Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistles, ix. 9
  21. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 14
  22. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 15
  23. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 18, 22
  24. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 18-25
  25. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 6, 11
  26. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 10-12
  27. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 20.
  28. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iv. 4.
  29. ^ Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. vii. 253.
  30. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 6, 24.
  31. ^ a b Cicero, Academica, i. 11.
  32. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 4.
  33. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 148.
  34. ^ Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. ix. 104, 101; Cicero, de Natura Deorum, ii. 8.
  35. ^ a b c Cicero, de Natura Deorum, ii. 22.
  36. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 41.
  37. ^ Cicero, de Natura Deorum, ii. 9, iii. 14.
  38. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 150.
  39. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 142, comp. 136.
  40. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, i. 9, de Natura Deorum, iii. 14; Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 156.
  41. ^ Stobaeus, Ecl. Phys. i.
  42. ^ Cicero, de Natura Deorum, i. 14.
  43. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 88, 148, etc., 156.
  44. ^ Cicero, Academica, i. 16. 2.
  45. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 6. 8; comp. Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 100, etc.
  46. ^ Stobaeus, 2.77.
  47. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 6.
  48. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 15.
  49. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 102, 127.
  50. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 85; Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 5, 15, iv. 10, v. 9, Academica, i. 16.
  51. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 108.
  52. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 13.
  53. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 13, Academica, i. 10, de Finibus, iii. 21, iv. 9, Parad. iii. 1; Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 127.
  54. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 14, etc.
  55. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 14; Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. vii. 422.
  56. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 9, Academica, i. 10.
  57. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 110; Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 6. 14.
  58. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iv. 38; Plutarch, de Virt. mor.
  59. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 6; Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 110.
  60. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 18, etc.
  61. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 4.

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