zoology

1. The branch of biology that deals with animals and animal life, including the study of the structure, physiology, development, and classification of animals.
2. The animal life of a particular area or period: the zoology of Alaska; the zoology of the Pleistocene.
3. The characteristics of a particular animal group or category: the zoology of mammals.
4. A book or scholarly work on zoology.

USAGE NOTE   Traditionally, the first syllable of zoology has been pronounced as (ō), rhyming with toe. However, most likely due to the familiarity of the word zoo (which is merely a shortened form of zoological garden), the pronunciation of the first syllable as (ū) is also commonly heard. In 1999, 88 percent of the Panelists found the (zō-) pronunciation acceptable, and 60 percent found the (zū-) pronunciation acceptable, with 68 percent using the (zō-) pronunciation and 32 percent using the (zū-) pronunciation in their own speech. Thus, while both pronunciations can be considered acceptable, the (zō-) pronunciation may be perceived as more correct.

The science that deals with knowledge of animal life. With the great growth of information about animals, zoology has been much subdivided. Some major fields are anatomy, which deals with gross and microscopic structure; physiology, with living processes in animals; embryology, with development of new individuals; genetics, with heredity and variation; parasitology, with animals living in or on others; natural history, with life and behavior in nature; ecology, with the relation of animals to their environments; evolution, with the origin and differentiation of animal life; and taxonomy, with the classification of animals. See also Anatomy, regional; Developmental biology; Genetics; Parasitology; Phylogeny; Plant evolution.

For more information on zoology, visit Britannica.com.

Zoology is the area of systematic biology that studies the animal kingdom. Systematic biology (or just systematics) is "the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms" (Simpson, p. 7). The animal kingdom is one of at least five kingdoms into which organisms are now divided; the others are plants, fungi, protoctists, and bacteria. The last two kingdoms comprise only unicellular organisms: protoctists include all unicellular organisms formerly considered animals, among them amoebas and paramecia, as well as several types of unicellular algae; bacteria are unicellular organisms lacking a differentiated cellular nucleus. Animals and plants are multicellular organisms, but plants have cell walls and animals do not. Fungi may be unicellular or multicellular, but do not develop through embryological stages, as do plants and animals. Therefore, animals may be loosely defined as multicellular organisms that lack cell walls, but develop through embryological stages.

Zoology is divided into different fields: Mammalogy (the study of mammals), Ornithology (birds), Herpetology (reptiles and amphibians), ichthyology (fish), entomology (insects), malacology (mollusks, from snails with and without shells to squids and octopuses), and helmintology (worms, from earthworms to flatworms), among others. Zoologists usually specialize in the study of only one group or of closely related groups of animals. If a zoologist specializes in extinct animals, of which only fossil remains are known, he is called a paleozoologist (the term paleontologist includes the paleobotanists, who study plant fossils). Zoogeography is a special field of zoology that studies the geographical distribution of animals and is closely linked with research on the evolution of animal species.

Classification

One of zoology's main purposes is to identify all animals through classification. Classification is accomplished by comparing the characters, or features, of groups of animals. These characters may be of very different nature: morphological characters refer mainly to body structures, whereas histological and cytological characters are those of body tissues and cells, respectively. The number and forms of the chromosomes (karyology) are also considered a distinctive feature, but methods of DNA complementation ("molecular systematics") are being used increasingly. The presence, absence, or even the structure of certain biochemical compounds are used as characters. Certain physiological functions (for example, temperature regulation) are also considered in classification.

The rules and procedures for classification constitute a division of zoology called animal taxonomy. Various opinions about whether characters should be differentially weighed (i.e., some characters should be considered more important than others), and on how they should be weighed have been voiced since the eighteenth century. Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), the founder of modern taxonomy, maintained that characters should be weighed according to their functional value, whereas Michel Adanson, a French naturalist, thought they should be arbitrarily selected.

Modern classification has relied mostly on weighed characters; however, in the twentieth century insect taxonomists began using quantitative (numerical and graphic) methods, bringing about new debate on this matter. The tendency now called phenetics, initiated by Russian taxonomist E. S. Smirnov in the 1920s, proposed methods for comparing unweighed characters to determine overall similarity, whereas another tendency, now known as cladism, developed by the German zoologist Willi Hennig in the 1950s, insisted on weighing characters according to their evolutionary importance. In the 1970s and 1980s, discussions took place in the United States between the supporters of both. As a result of this debate, numerical methods (which allow for the use of computers) were perfected; this brought about a certain degree of compromise between the differing quantitative approaches, but not between the underlying philosophies. The use of cladistic criteria, however, seems to have prevailed.

Characters and Conservation

Characters used for classification are generally determined in laboratories and natural history cabinets, but other features can only be studied in the field. Captive animals are not usually reliable when studies of behavior (ethology) or of relations between animal populations and their environment (ecology) are intended. Field studies are an important part of zoological research. Although they do contribute to classification, they also stand by themselves as a valuable source of information for species conservation. The only true way to preserve a species is within its own typical habitat (i.e., the natural conditions in which it lives).

By using an array of characters, many previously undescribed species are discovered every year. In their research, zoologists often go further than mere classification, contributing to a better understanding of biological processes and discovering previously unknown qualities of animals. For example, a collateral result of the study of insect pheromones (hormones that attract the opposite sex) was the use of some compounds in pest control that, unlike traditional insecticides, do not contaminate the environment. Research on sounds produced by certain dangerous or obnoxious animals have also served to devise methods to repel them without damaging the environment.

Writings, Collections, Natural History Museums

Many zoological works published during the nineteenth century included full portraits of the species described, especially of colorful birds, butterflies, and shells. The lavishly illustrated books of the American ornithologist John James Audubon (1785–1851) are among the most famous. Most zoological publications, however, do not include artistic portraits of the species they study, but do have drawings of some details of their morphology, as well as precise written descriptions. The animal specimens on which such descriptions are based are deposited in specialized collections, most of which are kept in natural history museums. The first zoological museum in America was established by Charles Willson Peale (1741–1827); it opened at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, in 1786. Peale's museum eventually incorporated many specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804– 1806).

Natural history museums in the nineteenth century were generally created by societies of naturalists to house the collections of their members. These collections were considerably enlarged through the efforts of hired collectors and the purchase of private collections. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (1812) and the Lyceum of Natural History of New York (1817) were among the first societies to create museums. The Academy has remained an important institution to this day, while the Lyceum was one of the predecessors of the American Museum of Natural History (1869). The Boston Society of Natural History (1830) and the Academy of Science of St. Louis (1856) also established museums. The Museum of Comparative Zoology (1859), created at Harvard University by Swiss-born ichthyologist and geologist Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), was one of the first American zoological museums to gain international recognition.

The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 in Washington, D.C., accumulated large collections of animals and benefited from the collecting activities of several government-sponsored expeditions, such as the Wilkes Expedition to the Pacific (1838–1842) and the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey (1848). Under its assistant secretary (and later secretary), ornithologist Spencer Fullerton Baird (1823–1887), the Smithsonian became one of the largest repositories of zoological collections in the world.

With the creation of land grant colleges and new universities in the last half of the nineteenth century, zoological research extended to all states. Many universities established their own zoological or natural history museums. In addition, some American philanthropists promoted the foundation of such museums. The Peabody Museum at Yale University, the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, and the Field Museum in Chicago are among the best known.

American Zoologists

Thomas Say (1787–1834), sometimes called "the father of American entomology," and Joseph Leidy (1823–1891), probably the first American paleozoologist, were early outstanding zoologists in the United States. Other wellknown zoologists include Joel Asaph Allen (1838–1921), a specialist in mammals and birds, and one of the founders of the Audubon Society; Thomas Barbour (1884–1946), the herpetologist and ornithologist who developed zoological research at the first American tropical-research stations in Cuba and Panama; and Alexander Wetmore (1886–1978), who specialized in the study of birds from Central and South America and the Caribbean.

Other American zoologists contributed greatly to knowledge of extinct forms of life. Othniel Charles Marsh (1831–1899), whose reconstruction of the evolution of horses became the standard illustration in biological textbooks during the twentieth century, and Edward Drinker Cope (1840–1897), author of a peculiar version of the evolutionary theory, were competitors in the search for dinosaur fossils. Between them they discovered and described more than 100 new species of dinosaurs. Henry Fairfield Osborn (1857–1935) reconstructed the phylogeny of elephants among many contributions to paleozoology. A specialist in fossil mammals, William Diller Matthew (1871–1930) wrote Climate and Evolution (1915), arguing against explaining animal distribution only in terms of connections between land masses. Although many ideas put forward by these researchers have been revised or even rejected, their work contributed significantly to the general advancement of zoology and paleontology.

Some zoologists wrote very influential books: Philip Jackson Darlington (1904–1983), an entomologist, published a widely read Zoogeography (1957); and Libbie Henrietta Hyman (1888–1969) published a six-volume monograph, The Invertebrates (1940–1967), that remains the standard reference work. The best known American women zoologists are, undoubtedly, Rachel Louise Carson (1907–1964), the author of one of the most influential books published during the twentieth century, Silent Spring (1962); and Dian Fossey (1932–1985), who wrote Gorillas in the Mist (1983), about her experiences studying gorillas in Central Africa.

Zoologist and geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900–1975); ornithologist Ernst Mayr (1904–) and mammalogist and paleozoologist George Gaylord Simpson (1902–1984) are among the developers of the contemporary version of Darwin's evolutionary theory, known as the "synthetic theory of evolution" (it "synthesizes" systematics, Genetics, ecology, and paleontology). Their three great books Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937), Systematics and the Origin of Species (1942), and Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1944), respectively, have become classics of twentieth-century biological literature. Simpson's The Meaning of Evolution (1949), a popular presentation of the synthetic theory, was widely read in the United States and translated into several languages.

Perhaps the best known contemporary American zoologists are Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002), a paleozoologist, author of many books and articles on the history of zoology, and one of the creators of the evolutionary theory of "punctuated equilibrium," and Edward Osborne Wilson (b. 1929), an ant specialist and an active promoter of conservationist policies and attitudes, as well as the author of Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975).

Bibliography

Barrow, Mark V., Jr. A Passion for Birds: American Ornithology after Audubon. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998.

Birney, Elmer C., and Jerry Choate, eds. Seventy-five Years of Mammalogy (1919–1994). Provo, Utah: The American Society of Mammalogists, 1994.

Dupree, A. Hunter. Science in the Federal Government: A History of Politics and Activities to 1940. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press, 1957.

Gould, Stephen Jay. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. New York and London: Norton, 1989.

Hull, David L. Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. The whole book is practically a case study of the debate between pheneticists and cladists.

Mallis, Arnold. American Entomologists. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1971.

Margulis, Lynn, and Karlene V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms. An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1988.

Meisel, Max. A Bibliography of American Natural History. The Pioneer Century, 1769–1865. Vols. 2 and 3. New York: Premier Publishing, 1926, 1929.

Reingold, Nathan, ed. Science in America since 1820. New York: Science History Publications, 1976.

Simpson, George Gaylord. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961.

Wilson, E. O., ed. Biodiversity. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988.

For much of the sixteenth century, as in earlier periods, animals were valued for use or for their symbolic or allegorical meaning. Medieval bestiaries, based on the Natural History of Pliny and the encyclopedic works of such early church fathers as Isidore of Seville, mingled naturalistic description, uses, and symbolic significance in their accounts of animals, and did not clearly demarcate real from mythological beasts. Conrad Gessner's Historia Animalium (Description of animals) of 1551, the era's most comprehensive text on animals, continued this mode of description, still evident fifty years later in Edward Topsell's revised translation, A History of Four-Footed Beastes (1607). Animals were classified in hierarchical terms centered on the notion of the great chain of being. However, the voyages of discovery and the intellectual changes associated with the scientific revolution began to strip away the layers of symbol and allegory from animals and made them objects of study in themselves.

Animals had been used as surrogates for humans in the training of physicians and surgeons since the twelfth century. Even after human dissection began to be practiced in the fourteenth century, medical schools continued to use animals, especially pigs, dogs, and cats, to teach human anatomy by means of both dissection and vivisection. The beginnings of comparative anatomy are usually dated to the appearance in 1551 of Pierre Belon's (1517–1564) work on the anatomy of cetaceans, soon followed by his comparison of a human skeleton to that of a bird (1555). Volker Coiter (1534–1576) established comparative anatomy as an autonomous field of study in the 1570s, and while animals continued to function as human proxies, numerous works appeared on animal anatomy and physiology as well.

Exotic animals were a form of diplomatic exchange dating back to Roman times. Medieval monarchs established menageries such as that at the Tower of London, which during the sixteenth century included lions, leopards, a tiger, a lynx, an eagle, and a porcupine. Animals in menageries were often used for sport in the form of animal combats or baiting. Louis XIV of France established a menagerie at his palace at Versailles; when the animals died, they were dissected before the Paris Academy of Sciences, and many of them were described in Claude Perrault's (1613–1688) Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des animaux (1671–1676; Memoirs for a natural history of animals). After death, these animals graced natural history cabinets (among which Gessner's was famous), which also included plants, antiquities, minerals, and curiosities. These predecessors of the modern natural history museum attempted to make sense of a rapidly expanding world by means of analogies, etymologies, and seemingly odd juxtapositions and also served important social and cultural roles in an aristocratic society based on status and patronage.

The work of Perrault's team and others such as Edward Tyson (1651–1708) made great strides in comparative anatomy. However, the main use of animals in science from the end of the sixteenth century onward was to demonstrate aspects of human (and animal) anatomy and physiology, for instruction and especially for research. William Harvey (1578–1657) demonstrated the circulation of the blood, published in 1628, by means of hundreds of experiments on live animals ranging from fish to dogs. Experimenters in universities and academies all over Europe embraced Harvey's experimental techniques, which included injection and inflation as well as vivisection. Notable examples included the work of Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) on the structure of the lungs and the capillary circulation, Robert Hooke (1635–1704) on the process of respiration, Regnier de Graaf (1641–1673) on the glands, and Nicolaus Steno (1638–1686) on the structure of the muscles. Hooke and Robert Boyle (1627–1691) placed small animals in a vacuum pump of their design and demonstrated the body's need for fresh air to sustain life. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) revealed the possibilities of the microscope, also used successfully by Malpighi and Hooke.

Most seventeenth-century natural philosophers regarded animals as machines, although few went as far as René Descartes (1596–1650) in denying their mental capacity to experience pain. Vitalist philosophies revived in the eighteenth century, although the mechanical philosophy continued to influence views of animal function. The work of Stephen Hales (1671–1767) on blood pressure was mechanistic, but by mid-century, Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777) exemplified the new emphasis on vital function with his work on the sensibility and irritability of the nerves. At the beginning of his 1752 treatise on this topic, Haller also displayed a new sensibility toward animals when he apologized for causing them pain.

By the end of the seventeenth century, concepts of classification had reached a crisis. The seemingly chaotic organization of cabinets and collections reflected a lack of consensus on classification schemes. The great influx of animals from the New World and other areas disrupted the old notion of a chain of being that was both full and complete, but there was little agreement about what might be a proper criterion for classification. Although Aristotle had attempted to establish a natural system of classification based on essential features and natural affinities, he also believed in a natural hierarchy. Various theories of plant classification multiplied, but the classification of animals lagged behind. At the end of the seventeenth century, John Ray (1627–1705) attempted a natural classification of animals, but its complexity did not bode well for future endeavors. In 1735, Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) described a classification of plants based on sexual parts in his Systema Naturae (System of nature), which also presented a scheme for classifying animals, organizing them in six broad classes. In the 1779 edition of Systema Naturae, he described nearly six thousand species of animals. His system was artificial, aimed at establishing order rather than reproducing nature's plan, and its use of the binomial nomenclature was widely adopted.

Linnaeus's system of classification was challenged by Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1707–1788), whose Histoire naturelle (1749–1788; Natural history) was the most comprehensive (and best-known) work on natural history in the eighteenth century. Buffon argued that any system of classification was by definition arbitrary and artificial, and that reality resided in individuals, not in species. While he modified his views over the course of his life, adopting many Linnaean categories, Buffon is especially important for introducing the concept of time into the discussion of taxonomy, finding variability of species over time but constancy of form at higher taxonomic levels.

By the end of the eighteenth century, animals had lost much of their earlier symbolic meaning. But in both laboratories and natural history museums they were, more than ever, objects of scientific scrutiny.

Bibliography

Cole, F. J. A History of Comparative Anatomy from Aristotle to the Eighteenth Century. New York, 1975.

Findlen, Paula. Possessing Nature. Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley,1994.

George, Wilma. "Sources and Background to Discoveries of New Animals in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries." History of Science 18 (1980): 79–104.

Guerrini, Anita. "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England." Journal of the History of Ideas 50, no. 3 (1989): 391–407.

Larson, James L. Reason and Experience. The Representation of Natural Order in the Work of Carl von Linné. Berkeley, 1971.

—ANITA GUERRINI

The scientific study and classification of animals. (See Linnean classification.)

The biology of animals.

n.

The science and history of the animal kingdom, including its king, the House Fly (Musca maledicta). The father of Zoology was Aristotle, as is universally conceded, but the name of its mother has not come down to us. Two of the science's most illustrious expounders were Buffon and Oliver Goldsmith, from both of whom we learn (L'Histoire generale des animaux and A History of Animated Nature) that the domestic cow sheds its horn every two years.

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (October 2009)

Zoology, also spelled zoölogy, is the branch of biology that focuses on the structure, function, behavior, and evolution of animals. The zoologist's pronunciation of "zoology" is /zoʊˈɑlədʒɪ/,^[1] though a common spelling pronunciation is /zuːˈɑlədʒɪ/.

Contents 1 Systems of classification 2 Notable zoologists 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

Systems of classification

Main article: Biological classification

Linnaeus's table of the Animal Kingdom from the first edition of Systema Naturae (1735).

Morphography is the systematic exploration, tabulation, and characterization of data concerning animals, existing or extinct. It is similar to ethnography. Groups of people who have contributed to the field include:

1. Past museum-makers of and their modern descendants, the curators and annotators of zoological collections
2. Early explorers and modern naturalist travelers and writers
3. Collectors of fossils and paleontologists

Notable zoologists

This is a list with no clear inclusion or exclusion criteria. Please help to improve Wikipedia by ensuring that there is consensus on the inclusion and exclusion criteria on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the section contains only verifiable material.

Main article: List of zoologists

In alphabetical order by surname:

• Louis Agassiz (malacology, ichthyology)
• Aristotle
• David Attenborough
• Henry Walter Bates (Batesian mimicry, Amazon)
• Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre
• Robert Broom (paleontologist)
• Rachel Carson (marine biologist)
• Archie Carr (Herpetology, esp. sea turtles)
• Archie Carr III, (wild mammals)
• Marjorie Harris Carr (Herpetology)
• Eugenie Clark (Ichthyology)
• William G. Conway (director of the Wildlife Conservation Society}
• Jeff Corwin (herpetology)
• Georges Cuvier (founder of comparative morphology)
• Charles Darwin (theory of evolution, natural selection, sexual selection)
• Richard Dawkins (ethology, evolutionary biology)
• James R. Dixon (Herpetology)
• Gerald Durrell (zoologist)
• William Flower (mammals)
• Edmund Brisco Ford (ecological genetics)
• Dian Fossey (primatology)
• Birutė Galdikas (primatology)
• Greg Graffin (paleontologist and Punk Rock vocalist)
• Jane Goodall (primatology)
• Ernst Haeckel (marine biologist), (naturalist)
• Victor Hensen (planktology)
• Bernard Heuvelmans (cryptozoology)
• Julian Huxley (evolutionary synthesis, humanism, World Wildlife Fund,

UNESCO)

• Thomas Henry Huxley (evolution, agnosticism, science education)
• Steve Irwin (zoologist)
• Al-Jahiz
• Ernest Everett Just (academician)
• William Kirby (father of entomology)
• Hans-Wilhelm Koepcke (ornithology, herpetology)
• E. Ray Lankester (zoology and comparative anatomy)
• Carolus Linnaeus (father of systematics; primarily a botanist)
• Konrad Lorenz (ethology)
• David W. Macdonald (wild mammals)
• Nigel Marven (modern zoologist all fields but prefers prehistoric animals)
• Ernst Mayr (evolutionary biology)
• Fritz Müller (evolutionary biology, Müllerian mimicry, Brazil)
• Desmond Morris (ethology)
• Richard Owen (vertebrate palaeontology, dinosaurs, Natural History Museum)
• Roger Tory Peterson (ornithology)
• Eric Pianka (herpetologist)
• Peter Pritchard
• William Emerson Ritter (marine biology)
• Thomas Say (entomology)
• Sarah Schoenfeld (Zoologist)
• John Maynard Smith (evolutionary biology, genetics)
• Leonhard Hess Stejneger (Herpetologist)
• Austin Stevens (herpetology, especially snakes and other serpents.
• Shen Kuo (medieval Chinese zoologist)
• Su Song (medieval Chinese zoologist)
• Jakob von Uexküll (animal behavior, invertebrate zoology)
• Ernst Freiherr von Blomberg (anthrozoology and religion)
• Alfred Russel Wallace (natural selection, zoogeography, animal colouration, Amazon, East Indies)
• E.O. Wilson (entomology, especially ants, founder of sociobiology)

See also

Main article: Outline of zoology

• Animal
• Anthrozoology
• Botany - the area of biology that studies plants
• Entomology - the area of biology that studies insects
• History of zoology (through 1859)
• Malacology and conchology, the study of mollusks, and their shells
• Paleontology - the study of life in the past
• Important Publications in Zoology
• Oceanography - the study of the oceans
• Microtomy
• Timeline of zoology
• Zoological distribution
• List of zoologists
• Zootomy - the study of animal anatomy or animal dissection

References

1. ^ "Zoology". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=zoology. Retrieved 26 April 2007. 

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

External links

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Zoology at:

The School of Zoology

• Zoology at Wikibooks.
• Books on Zoology at Project Gutenberg
• A Study Guide to Invertebrate Zoology at Wikibooks
• Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology
• An online dissection pictures of animals
• Dictionary.com's discussion of pronunciation

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - zoologi

Nederlands (Dutch)
dierkunde

Français (French)
n. - zoologie

Deutsch (German)
n. - Zoologie, Tierkunde

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - ζωολογία

Italiano (Italian)
zoologia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - zoologia (f)

Русский (Russian)
зоология, сообщество животных какого-л. района

Español (Spanish)
n. - zoología

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - zoologi

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
动物学, 生态

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 動物學, 生態

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 동물학

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 動物学

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) علم الحيوان‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮תורת החי, זואולוגיה‬

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