How did Romans celebrate the festivals and holidays?

Answer 1

In the Roman year there were 79 religious festivals and a further 35 religious ceremonies (many of them were anniversaries of dedications of temples). Most of the festivals lasted one day, some lasted 2-3 days and a few lasted longer (6,7, 8 (twice), 9, 10 (twice), 11, 14, and 15 days). There were also six games (ludi) which were part of religious festivals and two secular games. Most of these were ludi circenses; that is chariot races (held at the Circus Maximus) or horseback races (held at the Circus Flavius). The word circense referred to the circus, which was the race track. These games also involved other events, such as animal hunts, street theatre, dances and musical performances, acrobatic acts, tightrope walking and feasts.

The festivals were dedicated to different gods and had different rites. One common part of these rites was the sacrifices (sacrificia) which were offering to the gods to honour and pacify them. The Romans interpreted natural disasters and epidemics as being caused by the wrath of the gods. Failing to honour them with sacrifices equalled risking incurring their ire. The most potent offering was animal sacrifice (immolatio), typically domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs. This sought to harmonise the earthly and divine. The victim had to seem willing to offer its own life on behalf of the community. It had to remain calm and be "delivered" quickly and cleanly. Some archaic rites involved the sacrifice of goats and dogs.

The sacrifices to the di superi (gods of the sky) were performed in daylight and publicly. The sacrifice was preceded by a procession and followed by a feast where the meat of the victim was shared. The victim for the di superi had to be white animals of the same sex as the god. The sacrifices for the di terreni (terrestrial, earthly gods) did not involve feasts and sharing of the victim's meat. The sacrifices to the di inferi (gods of the underworld) and the shades of the dead (manes) were performed at night and the victims were burned (Holocaust). These victims could not be eaten because the living could not share a meal with the dead. Sometimes these victims were pregnant females. The di superi, terreni and inferi had different types of altars: altaria for the first type, arae for the second and foci (fire pits) for the third.

There were also unbloody sacrifices (libatio; i.e., libation). These usually accompanied bloody sacrifices. Cereal and scents mixed with salt were sprinkled over the victims, wine was poured between the horns and incense was burnt. Libations were also performed independently and involved offerings of honey, milk, and other fluids, undiluted or diluted. Incense could also be burnt on altars independently. Fragrant woods (cedar, vine, myrtle-wood) were also burnt on altars independently. Fruit was a Thanksgiving offering at harvest time. Cakes were offerings reserved to certain deities- Apollo was one of them. Flower-garlands, wheat, salt, wine-soaked bread and violets were offered to the manes (shades of the dead) in the parentalia, a festival in honour of family ancestors.

Another religious rite was augury. This was the divination of the omen of the gods. For actions which involved the public good or warfare, the Romans believed in consulting the gods to see if they had their approval. Priests called the augurs used signs for the sky, the fight of birds and the behaviour of several animals to interpret the omens. The haruspices, performed the same role, but did so by reading the entrails of animals.

Answer 2

In the Roman year there were 79 religious festivals and a further 35 religious ceremonies (many of them were anniversaries of dedications of temples). Most of the festivals lasted one day, some lasted 2-3 days and a few lasted longer (6,7, 8 (twice), 9, 10 (twice), 11, 14, and 15 days). There were also six games (ludi) which were part of religious festivals and two secular games. Most of these were ludi circenses; that is chariot races (held at the Circus Maximus) or horseback races (held at the Circus Flavius). The word circense referred to the circus, which was the race track. These games also involved other events, such as animal hunts, street theatre, dances and musical performances, acrobatic acts, tightrope walking and feasts.

The festivals were dedicated to different gods and had different rites. One common part of these rites was the sacrifices (sacrificia) which were offering to the gods to honour and pacify them. The Romans interpreted natural disasters and epidemics as being caused by the wrath of the gods. Failing to honour them with sacrifices equalled risking incurring their ire. The most potent offering was animal sacrifice (immolatio), typically domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs. This sought to harmonise the earthly and divine. The victim had to seem willing to offer its own life on behalf of the community. It had to remain calm and be "delivered" quickly and cleanly. Some archaic rites involved the sacrifice of goats and dogs.

The sacrifices to the di superi (gods of the sky) were performed in daylight and publicly. The sacrifice was preceded by a procession and followed by a feast where the meat of the victim was shared. The victim for the di superi had to be white animals of the same sex as the god. The sacrifices for the di terreni (terrestrial, earthly gods) did not involve feasts and sharing of the victim's meat. The sacrifices to the di inferi (gods of the underworld) and the shades of the dead (manes) were performed at night and the victims were burned (Holocaust). These victims could not be eaten because the living could not share a meal with the dead. Sometimes these victims were pregnant females. The di superi, terreni and inferi had different types of altars: altaria for the first type, arae for the second and foci (fire pits) for the third.

There were also unbloody sacrifices (libatio; i.e., libation). These usually accompanied bloody sacrifices. Cereal and scents mixed with salt were sprinkled over the victims, wine was poured between the horns and incense was burnt. Libations were also performed independently and involved offerings of honey, milk, and other fluids, undiluted or diluted. Incense could also be burnt on altars independently. Fragrant woods (cedar, vine, myrtle-wood) were also burnt on altars independently. Fruit was a Thanksgiving offering at harvest time. Cakes were offerings reserved to certain deities- Apollo was one of them. Flower-garlands, wheat, salt, wine-soaked bread and violets were offered to the manes (shades of the dead) in the parentalia, a festival in honour of family ancestors.

Another religious rite was augury. This was the divination of the omen of the gods. For actions which involved the public good or warfare, the Romans believed in consulting the gods to see if they had their approval. Priests called the augurs used signs for the sky, the fight of birds and the behaviour of several animals to interpret the omens. The haruspices, performed the same role, but did so by reading the entrails of animals.