This question is very broad. Engineers have developed countless technology to ensure a spaceship's survival in space. Its realy too much to list, but basically the goal is to protect a spaceship from the harmful environment of space, weather its radiation, temperature, or debris.
to step up voltage or to step down voltage
not normally if it is designed correctly and the operators are following the rules.
Investigate materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property, in order to determine the cause and the origin of failure.
No - a fuse is designed as a safety device - to operate within a specific range. It performs a completely different function to a diode.
You don't. The cook top was designed to operate on 208 volts. This is the voltage needed to get the elements up to their rated wattage to do the cooking. Higher wattage appliances do not operate on the lower voltage because of the size of the wire that is needed to feed the appliance.
How have engineers designed spacecraft to operate in the special conditions of space
on or off
Different engineers do different things. Civil engineers may design dams, bridges, roads. Mechanical engineers design factories, production lines. Electrical engineers may design power systems, and chemical engineers design chemical manufacturing processes. Safety engineers design safe working procedures, and operating engineers operate boilers, locomotives, cranes, and large equipment. Aeronautical engineers design airplanes and spacecraft, and Marine engineers design ships. And there are others as well.
It depends on the spacecraft.Some use radioisotope thermoelectric generators, some use solar panels and batteries, some use fuel cells. It really depends on the conditions the spacecraft is expected to operate under and the length of time it needs to remain active.
There would be less confusion and less waste. If you order something 6 units long there would be no question as to how long. The billion dollar Mars Observer was lost (it flew past Mars) because the engineers sent a command to burn a certain amount of fuel in order to correct the spacecraft's trajectory but they calculated and sent the value in cubic feet per minute while the spacecraft was designed to operate with liters per second.
The race tuner on a motorcycle is designed to operate the bike at optimal efficiency which under extreme conditions. It adjusts the fuel ratio, engine timing, and spark to match driving conditions.
Computers aren't discovered; they are DESIGNED to do what they do. Engineers and programmers worked to develope computers since the 1940's so they could compute and then designed them to print and draw and operate machinery, etc. The question is too general to give a precise answer.
Astronaut candidates are the most highly educated and skilled individuals, as well as physically fit. Not all of them are stereotypical astronauts, however. Many of the shuttle crew are "mission specialists", uniquely qualified professionals in their fields, as opposed to the pilots and engineers who operate the spacecraft.
Mechanical engineers design and operate all types of machinery.
The ISS is already a spacecraft. However, you cannot configure it as a lunar base, because it is designed to operate in orbit, not on any kind of terrain. It cannot be turned into some kind of starship either, since it is only designed for orbit, and cannot withstand fast travel.
Normally it would mean to harden the case, making it more resistant to shock, drops and rough use. This is often the case with military grade equipment which has to be used in the field and work under all conditions.
Aerospace engineering is the branch of engineering behind the design, construction and science of aircraft and spacecraft. It is broken into two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. The former deals with craft that stay within Earth's atmosphere, and the latter deals with craft that operate outside of Earth's atmosphere.