Is the process of cleaning or freeing materials especially instruments from dirt?

What are the branches of science?

acarology study of mites accidence grammar book; science of inflections in grammar aceology therapeutics acology study of medical remedies acoustics science of sound adenology study of glands aedoeology science of generative organs aerobiology study of airborne organisms aerodonetics science or study of gliding aerodynamics dynamics of gases; science of movement in a flow of air or gas aerolithology study of aerolites; meteorites aerology study of the atmosphere aeronautics study of navigation through air or space aerophilately collecting of air-mail stamps aerostatics science of air pressure; art of ballooning agonistics art and theory of prize-fighting agriology the comparative study of primitive peoples agrobiology study of plant nutrition; soil yields agrology study of agricultural soils agronomics study of productivity of land agrostology science or study of grasses alethiology study of truth algedonics science of pleasure and pain algology study of algae anaesthesiology study of anaesthetics anaglyptics art of carving in bas-relief anagraphy art of constructing catalogues anatomy study of the structure of the body andragogy science of teaching adults anemology study of winds angelology study of angels angiology study of blood flow and lymphatic system anthropobiology study of human biology anthropology study of human cultures aphnology science of wealth apiology study of bees arachnology study of spiders archaeology study of human material remains archelogy the study of first principles archology science of the origins of government arctophily study of teddy bears areology study of Mars aretaics the science of virtue aristology the science or art of dining arthrology study of joints astacology the science of crayfish astheniology study of diseases of weakening and aging astrogeology study of extraterrestrial geology astrology study of influence of stars on people astrometeorology study of effect of stars on climate astronomy study of celestial bodies astrophysics study of behaviour of interstellar matter astroseismology study of star oscillations atmology the science of aqueous vapour audiology study of hearing autecology study of ecology of one species autology scientific study of oneself auxology science of growth avionics the science of electronic devices for aircraft axiology the science of the ultimate nature of values bacteriology study of bacteria balneology the science of the therapeutic use of baths barodynamics science of the support and mechanics of bridges barology study of gravitation batology the study of brambles bibliology study of books bibliotics study of documents to determine authenticity bioecology study of interaction of life in the environment biology study of life biometrics study of biological measurement bionomics study of organisms interacting in their environments botany study of plants bromatology study of food brontology scientific study of thunder bryology the study of mosses and liverworts cacogenics study of racial degeneration caliology study of bird's nests calorifics study of heat cambistry science of international exchange campanology the art of bell ringing carcinology study of crabs and other crustaceans cardiology study of the heart caricology study of sedges carpology study of fruit cartography the science of making maps and globes cartophily the hobby of collecting cigarette cards castrametation the art of designing a camp catacoustics science of echoes or reflected sounds catalactics science of commercial exchange catechectics the art of teaching by question and answer cetology study of whales and dolphins chalcography the art of engraving on copper or brass chalcotriptics art of taking rubbings from ornamental brasses chaology the study of chaos or chaos theory characterology study of development of character chemistry study of properties of substances chirocosmetics beautifying the hands; art of manicure chirography study of handwriting or penmanship chirology study of the hands chiropody medical science of feet chorology science of the geographic description of anything chrematistics the study of wealth; political economy chronobiology study of biological rhythms chrysology study of precious metals ciselure the art of chasing metal climatology study of climate clinology study of aging or individual decline after maturity codicology study of manuscripts coleopterology study of beetles and weevils cometology study of comets conchology study of shells coprology study of pornography cosmetology study of cosmetics cosmology study of the universe craniology study of the skull criminology study of crime; criminals cryobiology study of life under cold conditions cryptology study of codes cryptozoology study of animals for whose existence there is no conclusive proof ctetology study of the inheritance of acquired characteristics cynology scientific study of dogs cytology study of living cells dactyliology study of rings dactylography the study of fingerprints dactylology study of sign language deltiology the collection and study of picture postcards demology study of human behaviour demonology study of demons dendrochronology study of tree rings dendrology study of trees deontology the theory or study of moral obligation dermatoglyphics the study of skin patterns and fingerprints dermatology study of skin desmology study of ligaments diabology study of devils diagraphics art of making diagrams or drawings dialectology study of dialects dioptrics study of light refraction diplomatics science of deciphering ancient writings and texts diplomatology study of diplomats docimology the art of assaying dosiology the study of doses dramaturgy art of producing and staging dramatic works dysgenics the study of racial degeneration dysteleology study of purposeless organs ecclesiology study of church affairs eccrinology study of excretion ecology study of environment economics study of material wealth edaphology study of soils Egyptology study of ancient Egypt ekistics study of human settlement electrochemistry study of relations between electricity and chemicals electrology study of electricity electrostatics study of static electricity embryology study of embryos emetology study of vomiting emmenology the study of menstruation endemiology study of local diseases endocrinology study of glands enigmatology study of enigmas entomology study of insects entozoology study of parasites that live inside larger organisms enzymology study of enzymes ephebiatrics branch of medicine dealing with adolescence epidemiology study of diseases; epidemics epileptology study of epilepsy epistemology study of grounds of knowledge eremology study of deserts ergology study of effects of work on humans ergonomics study of people at work escapology study of freeing oneself from constraints eschatology study of death; final matters ethnogeny study of origins of races or ethnic groups ethnology study of cultures ethnomethodology study of everyday communication ethnomusicology study of comparative musical systems ethology study of natural or biological character ethonomics study of economic and ethical principles of a society etiology the science of causes; especially of disease etymology study of origins of words euthenics science concerned with improving living conditions exobiology study of extraterrestrial life floristry the art of cultivating and selling flowers fluviology study of watercourses folkloristics study of folklore and fables futurology study of future garbology study of garbage gastroenterology study of stomach; intestines gastronomy study of fine dining gemmology study of gems and jewels genealogy study of descent of families genesiology study of reproduction and heredity genethlialogy the art of casting horoscopes geochemistry study of chemistry of the earth's crust geochronology study of measuring geological time geogeny science of the formation of the earth's crust geogony study of formation of the earth geography study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants geology study of earth's crust geomorphogeny study of the origins of land forms geoponics study of agriculture geotechnics study of increasing habitability of the earth geratology study of decadence and decay gerocomy study of old age gerontology study of the elderly; aging gigantology study of giants glaciology study of ice ages and glaciation glossology study of language; study of the tongue glyptography the art of engraving on gems glyptology study of gem engravings gnomonics the art of measuring time using sundials gnosiology study of knowledge; philosophy of knowledge gnotobiology study of life in germ-free conditions graminology study of grasses grammatology study of systems of writing graphemics study of systems of representing speech in writing graphology study of handwriting gromatics science of surveying gynaecology study of women's physiology gyrostatics the study of rotating bodies haemataulics study of movement of blood through blood vessels hagiology study of saints halieutics study of fishing hamartiology study of sin harmonics study of musical acoustics hedonics part of ethics or psychology dealing with pleasure helcology study of ulcers heliology science of the sun helioseismology study of sun's interior by observing its surface oscillations helminthology study of worms hematology study of blood heortology study of religious feasts hepatology study of liver heraldry study of coats of arms heresiology study of heresies herpetology study of reptiles and amphibians hierology science of sacred matters hippiatrics study of diseases of horses hippology the study of horses histology study of the tissues of organisms histopathology study of changes in tissue due to disease historiography study of writing history historiology study of history homiletics the art of preaching hoplology the study of weapons horography art of constructing sundials or clocks horology science of time measurement horticulture study of gardening hydrobiology study of aquatic organisms hydrodynamics study of movement in liquids hydrogeology study of ground water hydrography study of investigating bodies of water hydrokinetics study of motion of fluids hydrology study of water resources hydrometeorology study of atmospheric moisture hydropathy study of treating diseases with water hyetology science of rainfall hygiastics science of health and hygiene hygienics study of sanitation; health hygiology hygienics; study of cleanliness hygrology study of humidity hygrometry science of humidity hymnography study of writing hymns hymnology study of hymns hypnology study of sleep; study of hypnosis hypsography science of measuring heights iamatology study of remedies iatrology treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine iatromathematics archaic practice of medicine in conjunction with astrology ichnography art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan ichnology science of fossilized footprints ichthyology study of fish iconography study of drawing symbols iconology study of icons; symbols ideogeny study of origins of ideas ideology science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour idiomology study of idiom, jargon or dialect idiopsychology psychology of one's own mind immunogenetics study of genetic characteristics of immunity immunology study of immunity immunopathology study of immunity to disease insectology study of insects irenology the study of peace iridology study of the iris; diagnosis of disease based on the iris of the eye kalology study of beauty karyology study of cell nuclei kidology study of kidding kinematics study of motion kinesics study of gestural communication kinesiology study of human movement and posture kinetics study of forces producing or changing motion koniology study of atmospheric pollutants and dust ktenology science of putting people to death kymatology study of wave motion labeorphily collection and study of beer bottle labels larithmics study of population statistics laryngology study of larynx lepidopterology study of butterflies and moths leprology study of leprosy lexicology study of words and their meanings lexigraphy art of definition of words lichenology study of lichens limacology study of slugs limnobiology study of freshwater ecosystems limnology study of bodies of fresh water linguistics study of language lithology study of rocks liturgiology study of liturgical forms and church rituals loimology study of plagues and epidemics loxodromy study of sailing along rhumb-lines magirics art of cookery magnanerie art of raising silkworms magnetics study of magnetism malacology study of molluscs malariology study of malaria mammalogy study of mammals manège the art of horsemanship Mariology study of the Virgin Mary martyrology study of martyrs mastology study of mammals mathematics study of magnitude, number, and forms mazology mammalogy; study of mammals mechanics study of action of force on bodies meconology study of or treatise concerning opium melittology study of bees mereology study of part-whole relationships mesology ecology metallogeny study of the origin and distribution of metal deposits metallography study of the structure and constitution of metals metallurgy study of alloying and treating metals metaphysics study of principles of nature and thought metapolitics study of politics in theory or abstract metapsychology study of nature of the mind meteoritics the study of meteors meteorology study of weather metrics study of versification metrology science of weights and measures microanatomy study of microscopic tissues microbiology study of microscopic organisms microclimatology study of local climates micrology study or discussion of trivialities micropalaeontology study of microscopic fossils microphytology study of very small plant life microscopy study of minute objects mineralogy study of minerals molinology study of mills and milling momilogy study of mummies morphology study of forms and the development of structures muscology the study of mosses museology the study of museums musicology study of music mycology study of funguses myology study of muscles myrmecology study of ants mythology study of myths; fables; tales naology study of church or temple architecture nasology study of the nose nautics art of navigation nematology the study of nematodes neonatology study of newborn babies neossology study of nestling birds nephology study of clouds nephrology study of the kidneys neurobiology study of anatomy of the nervous system neurology study of nervous system neuropsychology study of relation between brain and behaviour neurypnology study of hypnotism neutrosophy study of the origin and nature of philosophical neutralities nidology study of nests nomology the science of the laws; especially of the mind noology science of the intellect nosology study of diseases nostology study of senility notaphily collecting of bank-notes and cheques numerology study of numbers numismatics study of coins nymphology study of nymphs obstetrics study of midwifery oceanography study of oceans oceanology study of oceans odology science of the hypothetical mystical force of od odontology study of teeth oenology study of wines oikology science of housekeeping olfactology study of the sense of smell ombrology study of rain oncology study of tumours oneirology study of dreams onomasiology study of nomenclature onomastics study of proper names ontology science of pure being; the nature of things oology study of eggs ophiology study of snakes ophthalmology study of eye diseases optics study of light optology study of sight optometry science of examining the eyes orchidology study of orchids ornithology study of birds orology study of mountains orthoepy study of correct pronunciation orthography study of spelling orthopterology study of cockroaches oryctology mineralogy or Paleontology osmics scientific study of smells osmology study of smells and olfactory processes osphresiology study of the sense of smell osteology study of bones otology study of the ear otorhinolaryngology study of ear, nose and throat paedology study of children paedotrophy art of rearing children paidonosology study of children's diseases; pediatrics palaeoanthropology study of early humans palaeobiology study of fossil plants and animals palaeoclimatology study of ancient climates palaeolimnology study of ancient fish palaeolimnology study of ancient lakes palaeontology study of fossils palaeopedology study of early soils paleobotany study of ancient plants paleo-osteology study of ancient bones palynology study of pollen papyrology study of paper parapsychology study of unexplained mental phenomena parasitology study of parasites paroemiology study of proverbs parthenology study of virgins pataphysics the science of imaginary solutions pathology study of disease patrology study of early Christianity pedagogics study of teaching pedology study of soils pelology study of mud penology study of crime and punishment periodontics study of gums peristerophily pigeon-collecting pestology science of pests petrology study of rocks pharmacognosy study of drugs of animal and plant origin pharmacology study of drugs pharology study of lighthouses pharyngology study of the throat phenology study of organisms as affected by climate phenomenology study of phenomena philately study of postage stamps philematology the act or study of kissing phillumeny collecting of matchbox labels philology study of ancient texts; historical linguistics philosophy science of knowledge or wisdom phoniatrics study and correction of speech defects phonology study of speech sounds photobiology study of effects of light on organisms phraseology study of phrases phrenology study of bumps on the head phycology study of algae and seaweeds physics study of properties of matter and energy physiology study of processes of life phytology study of plants; botany piscatology study of fishes pisteology science or study of faith planetology study of planets plutology political economy; study of wealth pneumatics study of mechanics of gases podiatry study and treatment of disorders of the foot; chiropody podology study of the feet polemology study of war pomology study of fruit-growing posology science of quantity or dosage potamology study of rivers praxeology study of practical or efficient activity; science of efficient action primatology study of primates proctology study of rectum prosody study of versification protistology study of protists proxemics study of man's need for personal space psalligraphy the art of paper-cutting to make pictures psephology study of election results and voting trends pseudology art or science of lying pseudoptics study of optical illusions psychobiology study of biology of the mind psychogenetics study of internal or mental states psychognosy study of mentality, personality or character psychology study of mind psychopathology study of mental illness psychophysics study of link between mental and physical processes pteridology study of ferns pterylology study of distribution of feathers on birds pyretology study of fevers pyrgology study of towers pyroballogy study of artillery pyrography study of woodburning quinology study of quinine raciology study of racial differences radiology study of X-rays and their medical applications reflexology study of reflexes rhabdology knowledge or learning concerning divining rods rhabdology art of calculating using numbering rods rheology science of the deformation or flow of matter rheumatology study of rheumatism rhinology study of the nose rhochrematics science of inventory management and the movement of products runology study of runes sarcology study of fleshy parts of the body satanology study of the devil scatology study of excrement or obscene literature schematonics art of using gesture to express tones sciagraphy art of shading scripophily collection of bond and share certificates sedimentology study of sediment seismology study of earthquakes selenodesy study of the shape and features of the moon selenology study of the moon semantics study of meaning semantology science of meanings of words semasiology study of meaning; semantics semiology study of signs and signals semiotics study of signs and symbols serology study of serums sexology study of sexual behaviour siderography art of engraving on steel sigillography study of seals significs science of meaning silvics study of tree's life sindonology study of the shroud of Turin Sinology study of China sitology dietetics sociobiology study of biological basis of human behaviour sociology study of society somatology science of the properties of matter sophiology science of ideas soteriology study of theological salvation spectrology study of ghosts spectroscopy study of spectra speleology study and exploration of caves spermology study of seeds sphagnology study of peat moss sphragistics study of seals and signets sphygmology study of the pulse splanchnology study of the entrails or viscera spongology study of sponges stasiology study of political parties statics study of bodies and forces in equilibrium stemmatology study of relationships between texts stoichiology science of elements of animal tissues stomatology study of the mouth storiology study of folk tales stratigraphy study of geological layers or strata stratography art of leading an army stylometry studying literature by means of statistical analysis suicidology study of suicide symbology study of symbols symptomatology study of symptoms of illness synecology study of ecological communities synectics study of processes of invention syntax study of sentence structure syphilology study of syphilis systematology study of systems taxidermy art of curing and stuffing animals tectonics science of structure of objects, buildings and landforms tegestology study and collecting of beer mats teleology study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose telmatology study of swamps teratology study of monsters, freaks, abnormal growths or malformations teuthology study of cephalopods textology study of the production of texts thalassography science of the sea thanatology study of death and its customs thaumatology study of miracles theology study of religion; religious doctrine theriatrics veterinary medicine theriogenology study of animals' reproductive systems thermodynamics study of relation of heat to motion thermokinematics study of motion of heat thermology study of heat therology study of wild mammals thremmatology science of breeding domestic animals and plants threpsology science of nutrition tidology study of tides timbrology study of postage stamps tocology obstetrics; midwifery tonetics study of pronunciation topology study of places and their natural features toponymics study of place-names toreutics study of artistic work in metal toxicology study of poisons toxophily love of archery; archery; study of archery traumatology study of wounds and their effects tribology study of friction and wear between surfaces trichology study of hair and its disorders trophology study of nutrition tsiganology study of gypsies turnery art of turning in a lathe typhlology study of blindness and the blind typography art of printing or using type typology study of types of things ufology study of alien spacecraft uranography descriptive astronomy and mapping uranology study of the heavens; astronomy urbanology study of cities urenology study of rust molds urology study of urine; urinary tract venereology study of venereal disease vermeology study of worms vexillology study of flags victimology study of victims vinology scientific study of vines and winemaking virology study of viruses vitrics glassy materials; glassware; study of glassware volcanology study of volcanoes vulcanology study of volcanoes xylography art of engraving on wood xylology study of wood zenography study of the planet Jupiter zoiatrics veterinary surgery zooarchaeology study of animal remains of archaeological sites zoochemistry chemistry of animals zoogeography study of geographic distribution of animals zoogeology study of fossil animal remains zoology study of animals zoonomy animal physiology zoonosology study of animal diseases zoopathology study of animal diseases zoophysics physics of animal bodies zoophysiology study of physiology of animals zoophytology study of plant-like animals zoosemiotics study of animal communication zootaxy science of classifying animals zootechnics science of breeding animals zygology science of joining and fastening zymology science of fermentation zymurgy branch of chemistry dealing with brewing and distilling

Example of simple and complex behavior?

Deviant behavioursThere is set of social features ,which provided to man to regulate his behavior according to that set of norms and values. Some of them in society fail to conform to these norms. Failure to conform to the traditional norms of the society is deviant behavior .According to Parsons ,there are two types of deviant behavior.A- firstly, he defines ,it as "motivated tendency for an actor to behave in a contravention of one or more institutionalized normative pattern."B- Secondly he defines it as "the tendency on the part of one or more of the component actors to behave in such a way to disturb the equilibrium .of interactive process,"Various violence ,crimes and oppositions are examples of deviant behavior. This deviant behavior brings tensions, disorganization ,conflicts and presents new challenges in social system.Deviant behavior is term of comparative condition. In all societies it occurred in some extent. There is no society which is free from any deviant behavior. The meaning of normative system is changing according to need of society. There was time when disobeying the rules of caste was considered as deviant behavior, but now in age of equalization norms of caste are valueless .In short purposely violation of any law which exist in valuable place in society, called deviant behavior.Crime and violence are clear and transparent examples of deviant behavior. In present plural society , the role of religion ,community ,caste, language, are important and any opposite or contradictory action against these also comes in category of deviant behavior. The Reason behind it is a democratic system ,where all faiths and religions are well respected.Throughout history, the most important aspects of the democratic way of life have been the principles of individual equality and freedom. Accordingly, citizens in a democracy should be entitled to equal protection of their persons, possessions, and rights; have equal opportunity to pursue their lives and careers; and have equal rights of political participation. In addition, the people should enjoy freedom from undue interference and domination by government. They should be free, within the framework of the law, to believe, behave, and express themselves as they wish. Democratic societies seek to guarantee their citizens certain freedoms, including freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of speech. Ideally, citizens should also be guaranteed freedom of association and of assembly, freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, and the freedom to work and live where and how they choose.Five-year plan is a programme to increase the economic and social development of a country over a five-year period. Many countries have had such plans drawn up by their governments. Examples include China and India. The plan details how much the government intends to spend on the various parts of the economy, particularly in those areas that will help the country to industrialize and develop. For example, a plan may include ideas for new roads, railways, airports, and seaports and for spending on such items as schools, universities, and hospitals. Individual countries' plans vary in scope and detail. Many are flexible and will be adjusted during the five-year period to reflect changes in international economic conditions.On considering this much arrangement ,still disputes and contraventions are resting in brains of people of various communities.A dispute or Contestation does not mean any necessary conflict. This situation has some possibility to reach at some agreement. With the organized systemically efforts to eradicate the dispute ,they want to show their unity and strength through processions ,this is called Contestation situation.Variou form of Contestation-1-Religious Contestation-Every where we observe diddrent faith and religions . In Europe Protestant and Catholic religions and their Contestation are common between two. Same way Gulf countries have Shiya and Sunni disputes. In India there are all types of religions .The history says Babri Masjid is built on Ram temple and Hindu and Muslims fight for this.India is declared as secular country but the ratio of extremists is increasing day by day.2-Racial Contestation- Racism is the belief that human beings can be divided into races and that members of some races are inferior to members of other races. Usually, this attitude also involves the belief that one's own race is superior to other races. People who believe in or practise racism are called racists. They claim that members of their own race are mentally, physically, morally, or culturally superior to those of other races. Because racists assume they are superior, they believe they deserve special rights and privileges.Racism is widespread and has caused major problems, even though no scientific proof supports racist claims. Claims of racial superiority and inferiority have been used to justify discrimination,3-caste conflict- India's Caste System has rarely matched the one outlined above. Through the centuries, however, the actual system became increasingly rigid and elaborate. Many attempts have been made to eliminate the system, but all have failed. India's 1950 constitution outlaws untouchability and grants equal status to all peoples. But laws and modern urban life have weakened the system only somewhat. Caste prejudice remains an important factor interfering with India's social integration and economic progress.4-Regional tension- The concept of regionalism is also reason of Contestation. At political level it works to hold maximum seats in administration. For this feature the party system has been the rise of several regional parties that are powerful in the particular states to which they belong. The popularity of these parties is largely due to the fact that they appeal to regional (cultural or linguistic) sentiments. In short they excite the opponents to form such other regional parties.5-Linguistic Contestation- In a linguistic sense, the term language is refers to those areas where most people speak that as their native language. For example Arabs have their language Arabic. This linguistic definition differs from the political one because some Arab countries include large areas populated by non-Arabs, and some non-Arab countries have significant Arab minorities. In India there are always conflictive arguments on northern and southern languages .Tamil, Telgu, Assam have shown Linguistic Contestation at various times.CrimeCrime is a term that refers to misconduct forbidden by law. Murder, called homicide--is a crime in all countries. Other crimes include stealing a car, resisting arrest, possessing or selling illegal drugs, appearing nude on a public street, driving while under the influence of alcohol, and robbing a bank.The list of acts considered crimes is constantly changing. For example, people are now no longer charged with witchcraft, though many were accused of that crime during the 1600's and 1700's. Today, it is becoming a serious crime to pollute the air and water. Pollution caused few problems and received little attention in pre industrial times.From a legal standpoint, a crime is a violation of the criminal law. Such law deals with actions considered harmful to society. On the other hand, most harmful acts causing injury to another person are violations of the civil law. Some overlapping occurs in this classification. For example, murder and rape are committed against individuals, but the law considers them crimes because they threaten society. For this reason, a crime is regarded as an offence against the state.An act is viewed as a crime if enough evidence exists to make a police officer, a prosecutor, or a judge believe that a violation of criminal law has taken place. However, the law does not consider accused people to be criminals unless a judge or jury finds them guilty. A criminal may be imprisoned or receive some other punishment, according to the laws of the community in which the crime was committed or the trial was held.A person who commits any crime is called a criminal. But the term is sometimes used only for a person who commits such a serious crime as murder or robbery. At other times, the term refers only to habitual criminals.The study of criminal behavior is called criminology, and experts in this field are called criminologists. Criminologists study crime and criminals for various reasons. They may try to determine where, when, and why different types of crime occur. Criminologists also seek the relationships between criminals and the victims, as well as the most effective ways to prevent crime.Definition and Features of Crime-1. "A crime is any act which the group regards as sufficiently menacing to warrant a decisive group reaction to condemn and restrain the offender of such act"( Barnes & Teeters, New horizons in criminology.)2. According to Elliot and Merrill ,"Crime may be defined as anti-social behavior which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties. (Social Disorgnization,pp.542-543)3. R.Garofelo accordingly" A violation of prevalent sentiments of pity and probity."(Criminology ,p59)4. In words of Caldwell, "Crime is the violation of set of values acceptable to organized society at a certain time and in a given place." (Criminology.p.4)5. In words of Redcliff Brown, "A violation of usage which gives rise to the exercise of penal sanction."(Quoted by Sutherland ,Principles of Criminology ,p15)6. Haikerwal "From the social point of view crime implies such behavior of the individual as interferes with the order of human relationships which society regards as primary condition of its existence." ,(Economic and Social Aspects of Crime in India 1927, p27)On the basis of above definitions, we can conclude following features of crime-1- crime is an act treated as anti-social behavior.2- This act is always against the interest of community.3- It is behavior which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties of money and physical imprisonment .4- There should be always involvement of criminal intention.5- The act which harms to man, group or state is counted as crime.6- There is difference between crime and tort. Disobeying of any religious ritual is called tort , not crime.Classification of Crime and Criminals;Crimes may be classified in various ways. For example, they sometimes are grouped according to the seriousness of the offence. For statistical purposes, many governments divide crimes into offences against people, against property, and against public order or public morality. Some social scientists classify crimes according to the motives of the offenders. Such crimes might include economic crimes, political crimes, and crimes of passion. Other important kinds of crime include organized crime and white-collar crime.Sutherland has divided crime into two parts.A- Misdemeanors or Average crime means robbery ,manhandle, consume alcohol etc. there is no harsh punishment for such acts. Some warnings, slight penalty, or keeping on probation are some forms of punishment for it.B- Felonies or Heinous Crimes-Murder, rape, dacoit, kidnap violence, looting etc are treated as very heinous crimes. The life imprisonment ,death sentence, are various forms of punishing the criminalHayes has given three type of crimes.A-Crime against order like disturbing and looting public place, indecent behavior ,involvement in riots,and disobeying the rules of public authority.B-Crime against Property-like robbery, cheating, smuggling, bankruptcy ,insolvency etc.c-Crime against individual - murder ,rape ,attach, defamation etc.Bonger says there are four types of crimes. They are economic, political. sex and revengeful crimes.Lambreso says there are five important types of criminals-A-criminals by birth-People commit crime due to defective personality of heredity B -psychiatric criminals-who can not distinguished the nature of the things of right and wrong. C-Excited criminals-who excited very fast and getting Excited by others commit crime. D- Casual criminals-Due to some causality they commit crime. E-Habitual criminals, these are known as occupational criminals. Such criminals organized and in planned way they commit crime. Organized crime consists of large-scale activities by groups of gangsters or racketeers. Such groups are often called the crime syndicate or the underworld. Organized crime specializes in providing illegal goods and services. Its activities include gambling, prostitution, the illegal sale of drugs, and loan-sharking (lending money at extremely high rates of interest). Many of these activities are often called victimless crimes because both the buyer and the seller take part in them willingly.Sutherland has described two types of economic crimes namely lower class criminals, who have very low economic and social status and due to lack of education they commit crimes. other category is called White-collar crimes. It originally included only criminal acts committed by business and professional people while earning their living. The term referred to such crimes as Stock Market swindles and other kinds of fraud. Today, the term covers such acts as cheating in the payment of taxes--which may or may not be done in connection with one's business. It may apply to petty thefts by employees, as well as to large-scale stock market swindles. It could also include a garage owner's charging for a car repair that was not made, or a dentist's charging a patient for services that were not performed. A bribery and corruption are also such crimes.Problem of crime inIndia-Like other countries India is facing crimes committed through computers. The increasing use of computers has created new opportunities for white-collar crime. Computer crimes are difficult to detect but easy to accomplish once a criminal learns the code or password to activate the system. Thus, automatic bank tellers increase the possibility of fraud or theft from banks. Computer access by bank employees creates additional opportunities for diversification .This is latest type of crime in India.The other crime is of political nature. Booth capturing ,killing the innocents ,murdering the other honest people who do not pay money from government treasury, creating terror for voting system are so many other forms of crimes.Political crime has become an increasingly serious criminal activity. It includes acts of terrorism against innocent people and assassinations of leading political figures throughout the world. Unlike many criminals who seek money or personal gain through crime, most terrorists and assassins commit crimes to show support for a political cause. Since the early 1970's, political crimes such as aeroplane hijackings, assassinations, bombings, and the taking of hostages have become more frequent. As a result, governments all over the world have taken steps to protect against terrorists. For example, security at airports, embassies, and other potential targets has been increased, and specially trained law enforcement or military units have been formed to combat terrorism.There is difference in nature of criminals of west and east. In western countries mostly crimes committed for economic reason as well as for revengeful mentality. But in India it is not so common. In India Crimes are often divided between acts that most people would consider evil and acts that lawmakers decide should be regulated in the interest of the community. The first group includes such major crimes as arson, assault, burglary, kidnapping, murder, rape, robbery, and theft. The second group of crimes includes violations of income tax laws, liquor licensing regulations, pure food and drug laws, and traffic laws.In India there are other type of common crimes like land related crime and religion related crimes, de to industrialization ,rural population migrated in towns and till they get house ,job or every thing they involve themselves in pity crimes. Smuggling, bribery ,kidnapping, asking money for freeing the person are other crimes in society. The big names of some crimes in India are Hawala Scandal, Bribery of Jharkhand party Scandal, Sukhram Scandal, urea Scandal, Bihar's Chara Ghotala Scandal, Telgi Stamp paper Scandal, Jain charbi Scandal etc. Now a days big bureaucrats and political leaders are involving in sex crimes.Some time back it was understood that only low class people committed crimes but now even big dignitaries are also not trust worthy. Due to Television and materialization children have great lust for money and they are also in habit of stealing things and money. The role of moral ethics are disappearing from society. A domestic violence is a story of every home. The dowry deaths crimes are common in rich families also. The involvement of women in crimes is not rare thing.Factors of crime-Biological factors-. Many studies have sought to explain crime. Most of them compare habitual criminals with people who have not been convicted of crimes to try to find important differences between the two groups.Since the late 1800's, for example, researchers trained in the biological sciences have searched for physical differences. Such studies involve differences in body type, the pattern of brain waves, and the formation of genes. Lambroso and Charles Goring said that due to defective traits of body they want to attract attention of others, so they commit crime. Other sociologists believe that due to heredity of criminals their offspring also do such acts.In compare to old young people inclined more towards acts of crime. Quarreling nature ,tension ,fraustration,etc are some biological factors of crime. Although none of these studies has proved that criminals have any physical traits that make them different from other people.2-Psychological factors-Research by psychiatrists and psychologists stresses personality differences resulting from experiences in childhood or later. This research shows that many people who became criminals were neglected by their parents or were given harsh or uncertain discipline. Such treatment left them insecure and demanding in their relations with others. Their own wants made them ignore the needs or rights of others. But researchers have had difficulty making a direct connection between emotional needs and crime because many people with emotional problems find acceptable ways of solving them.(CD of World book Millennium 2000)3-Economic factors-Due to industrialization and urbanization, the needs of people are at increasing rate. There is limited sources for satisfying unlimited needs. In many countries, most crimes are committed by boys and young men. They are particularly likely to commit burglaries, car thefts, and robberies .Modernization has changed the concept of standard of living which was simple living and high thinking .Now it isconverted in to high living and simple thinking.4-Social factors-For many young city-dwellers, the excitement of the streets provides the principal escape from boredom and seemingly unsolvable problems. These streets are also the scene of much vice and crime--drugs use and sale, gambling, prostitution, public drunkenness, and acts of violence. Law enforcement in the inner city is difficult, partly because too few police officers patrol the neighborhoods. In addition, many of the people fear the police and refuse to cooperate with them. .(CD of World book Millennium 2000)5-Political factors-political leader also train people for committing crimes. They are paid for it. Booth capturing ,killing the innocents ,murdering the other party candidates and honest people who do not pay money from government treasury, creating terror for voting system are so many other forms of crimes.Political factors have become an increasingly serious criminal activity. It includes acts of terrorism against innocent people and assassinations of leading political figures throughout the world. Unlike many criminals who seek money or personal gain through crime, most terrorists and assassins commit crimes to show support for a political cause. Since the early 1970's, political crimes such as aero plane hijackings, assassinations, bombings, and the taking of hostages have become more frequent. As a result, governments all over the world have taken steps to protect against terrorists.6-Defective Punishment system -If person is harshly penalized for ordinary acts ,it makes him serious criminal in future. Our legal system too is loosely knitted . On the basis of false evidence any person can be punished by law. Such person does not have faith in laws so they violate the same to punish the others.Schools of Crime-Pre classical school-According to this school any crime is committed due to some involvement of any super natural power. There was limited knowledge of people in old primitive societies. When they did not find any reason of act of violating rules of society they said it is because of some shadow of ghost or super natural spirit. A person himself did not know what type of act he is doing?This theory is not acceptable by others as it is based on imagination of people.Classical theory-Ben-them is supporter of this theory. According to him person's behavior is controlled by feeling of pain and pleasure. When person commit crime the quantity of pleasure is higher than the pain he takes for it. There fore 'Pleasure related Psychology' is main factor of crime.This theory does not believe in existence of super natural power, rather it gives importance to' Free will ' of individual .This is reason why Back-aria has given stress on severe punishment for criminals ,so that the pain of punishment could torture him more, than pleasure of committing crime.Beccaria and his followers protested at the severe punishments that were common for criminals at that time. They argued that the only purpose of punishment should be to prevent future crime. Beccaria assumed that criminals had free will and that pleasure and pain determined their actions. He believed crime could be prevented by the certainty and speed of punishment, rather than its severity. According to Beccaria, everyone who violated a specific law should receive the same punishment, regardless of age, sex, wealth, or social position. In modified form, the principles of the classical school are the basis of criminal law today in many nations.This theory is not acceptable by others as it has over looked the social factor of the same. There are so many psychological factors of harassment, emotional blackmailing ,frustrations etc, which have not given enough attention.Geographical School.-this school believes in geographical factors of crime like geographical condition and climatic conditions . Quetlete says in hot climatic conditions people commit more crimes against person while in cold conditions he commits against property. There are other thinkers like Gery and Durkheim who have opinion of committing crimes in favor of environmental factors. Durkheim says during summer season people commit more suicides.This theory is also criticized by many.because all people live in same geographical conditions do not commit crimes. More over due to technological factors ,people have controlled the geographical conditions also.Economic School-Angles and Karl Marx supports this theory of economic facrors. When economic disparity increases in society ,the ratio of tension also increases in large group of people. For reducing it they involve in crimes.As soon as relations among the means of productions improves ,the ratio of crimes also decreases.This theory is also one sided ,giving more importance to welth than man.Poverty does not encourage all men to commit crimes. Some say weaker section vave more faith in rules and laws.Italian or Typological school. The positive school of criminology, also known as the Italian school, developed during the late 1800's. In general, this school shifted the emphasis of criminology from crime itself to the study of criminals and the possible causes of their actions. The positivists believed criminal behavior resulted from conditions beyond the control of the criminal.An Italian doctor named Cesare Lombroso was the most important leader of the positive school. He studied many criminals and concluded that certain physical traits made them different from other people. His ideas have been proved false, but his scientific approach to crime laid the basis for modern criminology.Lambroso , Gerri fellow and Charles Goring said that due to defective physical traits of body or physically challenged / handicap ness lead them towards crime. Due to this they want to attract attention of others, so they commit crime. Gerri fellow gives more importance to mental traits than physical. He said if person does not have mercy and honesty in his character from birth ,he never hesitate to commit crimes.This is also unscientific theory .By birth no one is criminal, it is socio cultural circumstances which compelled him towards crimes. If birth is responsible for crimes than there is no hope for any improvement in his behavior and no reformatory program can be effective for them. Although through reformatory programs he can be once again molded in shape of sound citizen.Psychoanalytical school-The supporters of this theory are Sigmund Friaud ,Edler and Henery Godard .according to them due to suppressed feelings of person , he commits crime. There are so many achievements and failures in life. When he faces failures of life he feels emotionally tensed. Sometimes due to this tension, he feels insecure and frustrated .To get rid from all such negativity he commit crime. The low standard of intelligence is also inclined him to commit crime.But critics say it is not necessary that all people of low intelligence commit crimes.In every society all type of people reside,this does not mean that peole of low level of intelligence are criminals. More ever there are so many other sociological factors which are responsible for such acts.Sociological School. According to Sutherland crime is also learned behavior of man. Anti social contacts make him criminal. How person can become criminal ,it depends on four situations .A-Age B-Repetitions C- Duration D- speedy contact . These four things can be analyzed with the help of an example. The person who in younger age comes in contact of criminals,(Age) and he sees them again and again (Repetition) and live together for long duration (Duration) and he maintains such friendship and imitate their behavior, such person has all qualities of criminal. There fore the seed of crimes are exist in structure of society.During the 1900's, criminologists have proposed a wide variety of theories about crime. Edwin H. Sutherland, an American criminologist, developed the theory of differential association. It states that all criminal behavior is learned through association with criminals or people with unfavorable attitudes toward the law. Other criminologists believe the structure of society leads some people to choose criminal methods to achieve such socially approved goals as wealth and status. Still others argue that society produces crime, and so crime can be reduced or eliminated only by changing the organization of society.Most sociologist believe this theory and some believe other social factors are also encouraged him for committing crimes.Recent trends of Crime -1-Changing patterns of traditional crimes- Some time ago we observe only crimes of robbery, dacoit, murder etc . But now we see crimes related to caste, religions and regionalism are at increasing rate. The new category of crimes called white collar crimes done by big reputed officials and ministers are common in society. Now no file can be forwarded to other tables till you pay some commission (bribe) to concerned person. The crimes related to system have volumes to describe. A Violence can be seen from domestic field to international terrorism. Terrorism is also spreading in form of organized and planned way. The quantity of crimes related to child abusing have separate pathetic situation. At least 500,000 children are physically abused in the U.S. each year; many more are emotionally abused and neglected. In India and other developing countries child exploitation is common phenomenon which can be seen in every small hotel, motel and shop..examples of deviant behaviour-Crimes related to propertyCrimes related to person/women/children/deprived classesCrimes related to sexCrimes related to animalsCrimes related to terrorismCrimes related to violenceCrimes related to systemWhite collar crimes like bribe and corruption

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