Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e., "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0--1, or as a percentagebetween 0--100%. The term is used in multiple fields including pharmaceutics, ceramics, metallurgy, materials, manufacturing, earth sciences and construction.
In gas-liquid two-phase flow, the void fraction is defined as the fraction of the flow-channel volume that is occupied by the gas phase or, alternatively, as the fraction of the cross-sectional area of the channel that is occupied by the gas phase.[1]Void fraction usually varies from location to location in the flow channel (depending on the two-phase flow pattern). It fluctuates with time and its value is usually time averaged. In separated (i.e., non-homogeneous) flow, it is related to volumetric flow rates of the gas and the liquid phase, and to the ratio of the velocity of the two phases (called slip ratio).
Used in geology, hydrogeology, soil science, and building science, the porosity of a porous medium (such as rock or sediment) describes the fraction of void space in the material, where the void may contain, for example, air or water. It is defined by the ratio:
where VV is the volume of void-space (such as fluids) and VT is the total or bulk volume of material, including the solid and void components. Both the mathematical symbols ϕ and n are used to denote porosity.
Porosity is a fraction between 0 and 1, typically ranging from less than 0.01 for solid granite to more than 0.5 for peat and clay. It may also be represented in percent terms by multiplying the fraction by 100.
The porosity of a rock, or sedimentary layer, is an important consideration when attempting to evaluate the potential volume of water or hydrocarbons it may contain. Sedimentary porosity is a complicated function of many factors, including but not limited to: rate of burial, depth of burial, the nature of the connate fluids, the nature of overlying sediments (which may impede fluid expulsion). One commonly used relationship between porosity and depth is given by the Athy (1930) equation:[2]
where ϕ0 is the surface porosity, k is the compaction coefficient (m−1) and z is depth (m).
A value for porosity can alternatively be calculated from the bulk density ρbulk and particle density ρparticle:
Normal particle density is assumed to be approximately 2.65 g/cm3, although a better estimation can be obtained by examining the lithology of the particles.
]Porosity and hydraulic conductivityPorosity can be proportional to hydraulic conductivity; for two similar sandy aquifers, the one with a higher porosity will typically have a higher hydraulic conductivity (more open area for the flow of water), but there are many complications to this relationship. The principal complication is that there is not a direct proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity but rather an inferred proportionality. There is a clear proportionality between pore throat radii and hydraulic conductivity. Also, there tends to be a proportionality between pore throat radii and pore volume. If the proportionality between pore throat radii and porosity exists then a proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity may exist. However, as grain size and/or sorting decreases the proportionality between pore throat radii and porosity begins to fail and therefore so does the proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity. For example: clays typically have very low hydraulic conductivity (due to their small pore throat radii) but also have very high porosities (due to the structured nature of clay minerals), which means clays can hold a large volume of water per volume of bulk material, but they do not release water rapidly and therefore have low hydraulic conductivity.
Consolidated rocks (e.g. sandstone, shale, granite or limestone) potentially have more complex "dual" porosities, as compared with alluvial sediment. This can be split into connected and unconnected porosity. Connected porosity is more easily measured through the volume of gas or liquid that can flow into the rock, whereas fluids cannot access unconnected pores.
[edit]Porosity of soilPorosity of surface soil typically decreases as particle size increases. This is due to soil aggregate formation in finer textured surface soils when subject to soil biological processes. Aggregation involves particulate adhesion and higher resistance to compaction. Typical bulk density of sandy soil is between 1.5 and 1.7 g/cm³. This calculates to a porosity between 0.43 and 0.36. Typical bulk density of clay soil is between 1.1 and 1.3 g/cm³. This calculates to a porosity between 0.58 and 0.51. This seems counterintuitive because clay soils are termed heavy, implying lower porosity. Heavy apparently refers to a gravitational moisture content effect in combination with terminology that harkens back to the relative force required to pull a tillage implement through the clayey soil at field moisture content as compared to sand.
Porosity of subsurface soil is lower than in surface soil due to compaction by gravity. Porosity of 0.20 is considered normal for unsorted gravel size material at depths below thebiomantle. Porosity in finer material below the aggregating influence of pedogenesis can be expected to approximate this value.
Soil porosity is complex. Traditional models regard porosity as continuous. This fails to account for anomalous features and produces only approximate results. Furthermore it cannot help model the influence of environmental factors which affect pore geometry. A number of more complex models have been proposed, including fractals, bubble theory, cracking theory,Booleangrain process, packed sphere, and numerous other models. See also Characterisation of pore space in soil.
]Types of geologic porositiesPrimary porosity The main or original porosity system in a rock or unconfined alluvial deposit. Secondary porosity A subsequent or separate porosity system in a rock, often enhancing overall porosity of a rock. This can be a result of chemical leeching of minerals or the generation of a fracture system. This can replace the primary porosity or coexist with it (see dual porosity below). Fracture porosity This is porosity associated with a fracture system or faulting. This can create secondary porosity in rocks that otherwise would not be reservoirs for hydrocarbons due to their primary porosity being destroyed (for example due to depth of burial) or of a rock type not normally considered a reservoir (for example igneous intrusions or metasediments). Vuggy porosity This is secondary porosity generated by dissolution of large features (such as macrofossils) in carbonate rocks leaving large holes, vugs, or even caves. Effective porosity (also called open porosity) Refers to the fraction of the total volume in which fluid flow is effectively taking place and includes Caternary and dead-end (as these pores cannot be flushed, but they can cause fluid movement by release of pressure like gas expansion[3]) pores and excludes closed pores (or non-connected cavities). This is very important for groundwater and petroleum flow, as well as for solute transport. Ineffective porosity (also called closed porosity) Refers to the fraction of the total volume in fluids or gases are present but in which fluid flow can not effectively take place and includes the closed pores. Understanding the morphology of the porosity is thus very important for groundwater and petroleum flow. Dual porosity Refers to the conceptual idea that there are two overlapping reservoirs which interact. In fractured rock aquifers, the rock mass and fractures are often simulated as being two overlapping but distinct bodies. Delayed yield, and leaky aquifer flow solutions are both mathematically similar solutions to that obtained for dual porosity; in all three cases water comes from two mathematically different reservoirs (whether or not they are physically different). Macro porosity Refers to pores greater than 50 nm in diameter. Flow through macropores is described by bulk diffusion. Meso porosity Refers to pores greater than 2 nm and less than 50 nm in diameter. Flow through mesopores is described by Knudsen diffusion.Several methods can be employed to measure porosity:
where
VV is the effective volume of the pores, VT is the bulk volume of the sample, Va is the volume of the container containing the sample, Vb is the volume of the evacuated container, P1 is the initial pressure in the initial pressure in volume Va and VV, and P2 is final pressure present in the entire system. The porosity follows straightforwardly by its proper definition . Note that this method assumes that gas communicates between the pores and the surrounding volume. In practice, this means that the pores must not be closed cavities.hi im rachelle can you pls add me at: rachelletugagao@yahoo.com
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Usually, yes.
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No not all of them.
weathering of preexisting rocks form clastic sedimentary rocks, Oversaturated water basins form chemical sedimentary rocks after the water evaporates and dead sea organisms settle at the bottom forming biochemical sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks can be made from any kind of material, from other rocks to shells to plant material. Basically, any rock, from metamorphic to igneous and even to sedimentary, can be weathered and eroded. These particles and grains can be carried great distances by wind, water, ice, etc. before they are deposited and lithified (cemented) back together to form sedimentary rocks.
Water pushes down on the layers of sand and stone. Over time, the water evaporates the leaves the sedimentary rock to dry.
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Sedimentary rocks can be both chemically and mechanically weathered.
Some rocks that are known to absorb water include sandstone, limestone, and shale. These rocks have interconnected pore spaces that allow water to be drawn in and stored within their structure.
What do sedimentry rocks have to do with water
igneous rocks do absorb water because of all the pores ,cracks, and holes in them. The holes will absorb the water and the water will get trapped in the rock there for igneous rocks do absorb water.
weathering of preexisting rocks form clastic sedimentary rocks, Oversaturated water basins form chemical sedimentary rocks after the water evaporates and dead sea organisms settle at the bottom forming biochemical sedimentary rocks.
weathering and erosion helps to build sedimentary layers then sedimentary rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by the precipitation of minerals from water.
Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in water, but not always. Some sandstones, for example, form in deserts.
Sedimentary rocks come from the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water.
They are called clastic sedimentary rocks.
All sedimentary rocks are made by of deposition of the products of erosion either on land or more usually in water. Crystalline sedimentary rocks can be produced by the evaporation of a brine.
The small particles are compressed under water to then form sedimentary rocks
sedimentary