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In early U.S. history, "midnight judges" refers to the judges appointed by President John Adams in the final hours of his presidency in 1801, before Thomas Jefferson took office. These appointments were part of the Judiciary Act of 1801, which aimed to increase the number of federal judges and ensure Federalist control of the judiciary. The term became particularly significant after Jefferson's administration sought to revoke these appointments, leading to the landmark Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, which established the principle of judicial review.

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In early united stated history midnight judge refers specifically to?

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