Where is Abulcasis from?

How was hemophilia discovered?

Hemophilia is a disorder that affects the body's ability to coagulate blood properly. Abulcasis first described this disorder in the 10th century, but it wasn't until 1828 when Frederich Hopff first coined the term hemophilia.

Who is the father of modern surgery?

Dr. Gail Anderson, a surgeon who chaired the first Academic department of Emergency Medicine at LA county hospital/USC medical school, spend decades petitioning for formal recognition of the specialty of Emergency medicine, and helped form the American Board of Emergency medicine (ABEM), is commonly called the "Father of Emergency Medicine" in the United States.

Who are the scientist in middle age?

Here are a list of medevil scientists. They are from the Muslum, Christian, and Jewish medevil world ( mostly Muslum world since the Islamic Empires of time period are the centers of learning). Robert Grosseteste, Abulcasis, Roger Bacon, Roger Frugardi, Masoud Kazerouni, Yusuf al-Ilaqi, Petrus Alphonsi , Gregory Choniades, Pierre de Maricourt, Zakariya al-Qazwini, Al-Dakhwar, Ibn al-Nafis.

Who discovered the disease hemophilia?

Hemophilia was discovered by a physician from Philadelphia in Pennsylvania named John Conrad Otto. He is credited to be the first to have discovered this genetic disorder back in 1803. He described the condition as hereditary, which affected males more compared to females. He also tried to find out what was the source of this disease found his way to a woman who lived in Plymouth some time in 1720. In 1828, the term 'hemophilia' was first used at the University of Zurich in Switzerland.

What is the list of 10 Muslim scientist?

· ABU ABDULLAH AL-BATTANI (Astronomy)· ABU ALI HASAN IBN AL-HAITHAM (Great Optician)· ABU AL-NASR AL-FARABI( Logic, sociology, philosophy)· ABU MARWAN IBN ZUHR (Averroes)( Master Physician)· Doctor of Doctors: Ibn Sina (Avicenna)· ALI IBN RABBAN AL-TABARI (Physician , mathematician, sociology)· Greatest Botanist and Pharmacist of the Middle Ages: IBN AL-BAITAR· AL-FARGHANI (astronomer)· Ibn Battuta - The Incredible Traveler· ABUL HASAN ALI AL-MASU'DI (Traveler)· Father of Surgery: ABU AL-QASIM AL-ZAHRAVI(Abulcasis)· ALI IBN RABBAN AL-TABARI (Physician)· Discoverer of Pulmonary Circulation : IBN AL-NAFIS· IBN RUSHD (Philosophy ,Logic)· MOHAMMAD IBN ZAKARIYA AL-RAZI (Chemist, Philosopher)· One of the Greatest Mathematicians: MOHAMMAD BIN MUSA AL-KHAWARIZMI· NASIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI ( philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, theologian and physician)· Thabit Ibn Qurra (mathmatician)· OMAR AL-KHAYYAM (mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, physician)· YAQUB IBN ISHAQ AL-KINDI (philosopher, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, physician)· AL-IDRIS(Botony)· ABUL WAFA MUHAMMAD AL-BUZJANI· Father of Chemistry: Jabir Ibn Haiyan

What country did lipstick come from?

HistoryLipstick used to make a symbolic kiss.Ancient Mesopotamian women were possibly the first women to invent and wear lipstick. They crushed semi precious jewels and used them to decorate their lips.[1] Women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied lipstick to their lips for face decoration.[2] Ancient Egyptians extracted purplish-red dye fromfucus-algin, 0.01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, which resulted in serious illness. Cleopatra had her lipstick made from crushed carmine beetles, which gave a deep red pigment, and ants for a base. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales.[3]During the Islamic Golden Age the notable Arab Andalusian cosmetologist Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) invented solid lipsticks, which were perfumedsticks rolled and pressed in special molds, and he described them in his Al-Tasrif.[citation needed] In Medieval Europe, lipstick was banned by the church and was thought to be used as an 'incarnation of Satan',[4] cosmetics being 'reserved' for prostitutes.EnglandLip colouring started to gain some popularity in 16th century England. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I bright red lips and a stark white face became fashionable.[5] By that time, lipstick was made from a blend of beeswax and red stains from plants. Only upper class women and male actors wore makeup.[6] In 1770 a British law was proposed to the Parliament that a marriage should be annulled if the woman wore cosmetics before her wedding day.[7]Throughout most of the 19th century the obvious use of cosmetics was not considered acceptable in Britain for respectable women, and it was associated with marginalized groups such as actresses and prostitutes. When Queen Victoria took the throne in 1837, she banished lipstick[citation needed]. It was considered brazen and uncouth to wear makeup.[1] In the 1850s, reports were being published warning women of the dangers of using lead and vermillion in cosmetics applied to the face. By the end of the 19th century, Guerlain, a French cosmetic company, begin to manufacture lipstick. The first commercial lipstick had been invented in 1884, by perfumers in Paris, France. It was covered in silk paper and made from deer tallow, castor oil, and beeswax.[1] Before then, lipstick had been created at home.[8] Complete acceptance in England may have been slower, but appears to have arrived for the fashionable Londoner at least by 1921.[9]United StatesIn the 19th century, lipstick was colored with carmine dye. Carmine dye was extracted from Cochineal, scale insects native to Mexico and Central America which live on cactus plants. Cochineal insects produce carminic acid to deter predation by other insects. Carminic acid, which forms 17% to 24% of the weight of the dried insects, can be extracted from the insect's body and eggs. Mixed with aluminum or calcium salts it makes carmine dye (also known as cochineal).[10]:36 This lipstick did not come in a tube; it was applied with a brush. Carmine dye was expensive and the look of carmine colored lipstick was considered unnatural and theatrical, so lipstick was frowned upon for everyday wear. Only actors and actresses could get away with wearing lipstick. In 1880, few stage actresses wore lipstick in public.[11][12] The famous actress, Sarah Bernhardt, began wearing lipstick and rouge in public. Before the late 19th century, women only applied makeup at home. Bernhardt often applied carmine dye to her lips in public.[10]:36In the early 1890s, Carmine was mixed with an oil and wax base. The mixture gave a natural look and it was more acceptable among women. At that time, lipstick was not sold in screw up metal tube; it was sold in paper tubes, tinted papers, or in small pots.[11] The Sears Roebuck catalog first offered rouge for lips and cheeks by the late 1890s.In 1912, fashionable American women had come to consider lipstick acceptable: though an article in the New York Timesadvised on the need to apply it cautiously.[13]By 1915, lipstick was sold in cylinder metal containers, which had been invented by Maurice Levy. Women had to slide a tiny lever at the side of the tube with the edge of their fingernail to move the lipstick up to the top of the case.[14] In 1923, the first swivel-up tube was patented by James Bruce Mason Jr. in Nashville, Tennessee. As women started to wear lipstick for photographs, photographymade lipstick acceptable among women.[11] Elizabeth Arden and Estee Lauder begin selling lipstick in their salons.[12]During the Second World War, metal lipstick tubes were replaced by plastic and paper tubes. Lipstick was scarce during that time because some of the essential ingredients of lipstick, petroleum andcastor oil, were unavailable.:50 World War II allowed women to work in engineering and scientific research, and in the late 1940s, Hazel Bishop, an organic chemist in New York and New Jersey, created the first long lasting lipstick, called No-Smear lipstick.[15] With the help of Raymond Specter, an advertiser, Bishop's lipstick business thrived.Another form of lip color, a wax-free semi-permanent liquid formula, was invented in the 1990s by the Lip-Ink International company. Other companies have imitated the idea, putting out their own versions of long-lasting "lip stain" or "liquid lip colour."

What Muslim technologies influenced other civilizations?

Chemical industriesJabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), the "father of chemistry", invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry. Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (Rhazes) isolated many chemical substances, produced many medications, and described many laboratory apparatus.Laboratory setup for steam distillation, invented by Avicenna in the 11th century.Aqua regia was first isolated by Geber.Hydrochloric acid, a mineral acid, was first isolated by Geber.Nitric acid, a mineral acid, was first isolated by Geber.Sulfuric acid, a mineral acid, was first isolated by Geber.Arsenic, a chemical element, was first isolated by Geber in the 8th century.Coloured stained glass windows in the Nasir al-Mulk mosque in Shiraz, Iran.See also: Alchemy and chemistry in IslamEarly forms of distillation were known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but it was Muslim chemists who first invented pure distillation processes which could fully purify chemical substances. They also developed several different variations of distillation (such as dry distillation, destructive distillation and steam distillation) and introduced new distillation aparatus (such as the alembic, still, and retort), and invented a variety of new chemical processes and over 9,000 chemical substances.[2]Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith:"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Moslems; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations."[3]Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity:"Chemistry, the rudiments of which arose in the processes employed by Egyptian metallurgists and jewellers combining metals into various alloys and 'tinting' them to resemble gold, processes long preserved as a secret monopoly of the priestly colleges, and clad in the usual mystic formulas, developed in the hands of the Arabs into a widespread, organized passion for research which led them to the invention of distillation, sublimation, filtration, to the discovery of alcohol, of nitric and sulphuric acids (the only acid known to the ancients was vinegar), of the alkalis, of the salts of mercury, of antimony and bismuth, and laid the basis of all subsequent chemistry and physical research."[4][edit] Chemical processesThe following chemical processes were invented by Muslim chemists: Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation.[5]Calcination (al-tashwiya): Invented by Geber.[6][7]Crystallization (al-tabalwur): Invented by Geber.[8]Distillation, pure (al-taqtir): Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) was the first to fully purify chemical substances through distillation, using the alembic, in the 8th century.[4]Destructive distillation: Invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum.[9]Dry distillationFiltration (al-tarshih): Invented by Geber.[4]Liquefaction, purification, oxidisation, and evaporation (tabkhir): Invented by Geber.[10]Solution (al-tahlil), sublimation(al-tas'id), amalgamation (al-talghim), ceration (al-tashmi), and a method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid.[6]Steam distillation: Invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.[11][citation needed]Water purification[edit] Chemical substancesArsenic, alkali, alkali salt, borax, and pure sal ammoniac: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.[7]Cheese glue and plated mail: Invented by Geber.[12]Derivative and artificial chemical substances: In the 10th century, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi wrote that he and his Muslim predecessors (Calid, Geber and al-Kindi) invented the following derivative and artificial substances: lead(II) oxide (PbO), red lead (Pb3O4), tin(II) oxide(Isfidaj), copper acetate (Zaniar), copper(II) oxide (CuO), lead sulfide, zinc oxide, bismuth oxide, antimony oxide, iron rust, iron acetate, Daws (a contituent of steel), cinnabar (HgS), arsenic trioxide (As2O3), alkali (al-Qili), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and Qalimiya (anything that separates from metals during their purification).[13]Ethanol and pure ammonia: Isolated by Arabic chemists.[14]Lead carbonatic: Isolated by Geber.[15]Medicinal substances: Muslim chemists discovered 2,000 medicinal substances.[2]Potassium nitrate, pure: Isolated by Hasan al-Ramah in the 1270s.[7]Rose water: First produced by Muslim chemists in the medieval Islamic world through the distillation of roses, for use in the drinking and perfumery industries.[7]Sal nitrum: Isolated by Geber.[7]Acids Aqua regia: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.[7]Carboxylic acids: Geber isolated Acetic acid from vinegar.[8][16] He is also credited with the discovery and isolation of Citric acid, the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits.[8]Mineral acids: The mineral acids-nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid-were first isolated by Geber.[17] He originally referred to sulfuric acid as the oil of vitriol.[7][14][18]Organic acids: Geber isolated Uric acid.[10] He also isolated Tartaric acid from wine-making residues.[8]Elements Arsenic: Isolated by Geber in the 8th century.[15]Antimony: Isolated by Geber.[4][15][edit] Food and drinkCoffee: Produced by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia, in the 9th century.[10]Confectionery: Due to advances in sugar production and the invention of sugar refineries, this led to the production of early confectioneries by the Arabs.[19]Distilled water and water purification: Purified by Muslim chemists.[14]Pure distilled alcohol and ethanol: First isolated by Al-Kindi (Alkindus) in the 9th century.[7][20] Ahmad Y Hassan wrote: "The distillation of wine and the properties of alcohol were known to Islamic chemists from the eighth century. The prohibition of wine in Islam did not mean that wine was not produced or consumed or that Arab alchemists did not subject it to their distillation processes. Jabir ibn Hayyan described a cooling technique which can be applied to the distillation of alcohol."[21]Restaurant and three-course meal: The earliest restaurants came into existence throughout the Islamic world from the 10th century, shortly before restaurants appeared in China in the 11th century. The Islamic world had "restaurants where one could purchase all sorts of prepared dishes." These restaurants were mentioned by Al-Muqaddasi (born 945) in the late 10th century.[22] Restaurants in medieval Islamic Spain served three-course meals, which was earlier introduced in the 9th century by Ziryab, who insisted that meals should be served in three separate courses consisting of soup, the main course, and dessert.[23]Rose water: See Chemical substances above.Sugar refinery: See Industrial milling below.[edit] Glass industryArtificial gemstone: Geber (d. 815) first described the production of high-quality coloured glass cut into artificial gemstones.[24][25]Artificial pearl and purification of pearls: In his Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), Jabir described the first recipes for the manufacture of artificial pearls and for the purification of pearls that were discoloured from the sea or from grease.[26]Coloured stained glass windows: Muslim architects in Southwest Asia were the first to produce stained glass windows using coloured glass rather than stone producing a stained glass-like effect, as was the case in early churches. In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Geber scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing high-purity coloured glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.[24][25]Concave, convex and spherical mirrors: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) gave the earliest accurate descriptions of concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries,[27] and he also gave the earliest accurate description of spherical mirrors.[28]Dying and artificial colouring of gemstones and pearls: In The Book of the Hidden Pearl, Geber described the first recipes for the dying and artificial colouring of gemstones and pearls.[26]Glass factory: The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Extensive experimentation was carried out at the complex, which was two kilometres in length, and a variety of innovative high-purity glass were developed there. Two other similar complexes have also been discovered, and nearly three hundred new chemical recipes for glass are known to have been produced at all three sites.[29] The first glass factories were thus built by Muslim craftsmen in the Islamic world. The first glass factories in Europe were later built in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Corinth, Greece.[17]Quartz glass and Silica glass: The production of glass from stone (including quartz) and sand, was pioneered by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century.[30]Parabolic mirror: Invented by Ibn Sahl in the 10th century.[31] These observations were repeated by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics (1021).[28][edit] Military technologySee also: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam A picture of a 15th century Granadian siege cannon from the book Al-izz wal rifa'a.The Ottoman Janissary corps were using matchlock muskets since the 1440s. They are depicted battling the Knights Hospitaller in this 1522 painting.Damascus steel: One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East was Damascus steel used for swordmaking, and mostly produced in Damascus, Syria, in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using the crucible steel method, based on the earlier Indian wootz steel. This process was further refined in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The process allowed carbides to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. The carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, allowing the swordsmith to make an edge which would cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel allowed the sword as a whole to remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that uses x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires[32] and carbon nanotubes.[33] Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties[34] and are a result of the forging process.[34][35]Dissolved talc: Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 were the first to smear dissolved talc (from Arabic talq) on their hands, as forms of fire protection from gunpowder.[36]Fireproof clothing: Asbestos may have possibly been used as a form of fire protection by the ancient Chinese and Greeks. However, it was Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 who were the first to wear fireproof clothing to protect themselves from gunpowder fires as well as chemicals in gunpowder warfare. Their fireroof protective clothing consisted of a silk tunic (still worn by Formula 1 drivers underneath their Nomex fire suits), aketon (from the Arabic al-qutn "the cotton"), and mainly a woolen overtunic that protects against fires and chemical weapons], similar to the clothing worn by modern soldiers for protection against biological, chemical and nuclear weapons. Due to the effectiveness of their fireproof clothing, the Egyptian soldiers were able to attach gunpowder cartridges and incendiary devices to their clothing.Gunpowder cartridge: Gunpowder cartridges were first employed by the Egyptians, for use in their fire lances and hand cannons against the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.[36]Hand cannon, handgun, and small arms: The first portable hand cannons (midfa) loaded with explosive gunpowder, the first example of a handgun and portable firearm, were used by the Egyptians to repel the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and again in 1304. The gunpowder compositions used for the cannons at these battles were later described in several manuscripts in the early 14th century. According to Shams al-Din Muhammad (d. 1327), the cannons had an explosive gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) almost identical to the ideal compositions for explosive gunpowder used in modern times (75% saltpetre, 10% sulfur, 15% carbon).[36]Matchlock: The Janissary corps of the Ottoman army were using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s.[37] The first dated illustration of a matchlock mechanism in Europe dates to 1475.Purified potassium nitrate: Muslim chemists were the first to purify potassium nitrate (saltpetre; natrun or barud in Arabic) to the weapons-grade purity for use in gunpowder, as potassium nitrate needs to be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his al-Muqaddimat in 1029. The first complete purification process for potassium nitrate is described in 1270 by the Arab chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al-Furusiyya WA al-Manasib al-Harbiyya ('The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices', a.k.a. the Treatise on Horsemanship and Stratagems of War). He first described the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes) to remove calcium and magnesium salts from the potassium nitrate.[36][38] Hasan al-Rammah also describes the purifying of saltpetre using the chemical processes of solution and crystallization, and this was the first clear method for the purification of saltpetre.[39] Bert S. Hall,[40] however, disputes the efficacy of al-Rammah's formula for the purification of potassium nitrate.[edit] Oil industryEssential oil: Invented by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.[11]Kerosene and kerosene lamp: Invented by Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi in the 9th century.[41]Oil field, petroleum industry, naphtha, and tar: An early petroleum industry was established in the 8th century, when the streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum through destructive distillation. In the 9th century, oil fields were first exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha. These fields were described by al-Masudi in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of its oil wells as hundreds of shiploads.[9]Petrol: Muslim chemists were the first to produce petrol from crude oil.[42][edit] PotteryMain article: Islamic pottery Tin-glazed Hispano-Moresque ware with lusterware decoration, from Spain circa 1475.Albarello: An albarello is a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Brought to Italy by Hispano-Moresque traders, the earliest Italian examples were produced in Florence in the 15th century.Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Islamic Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of it decoration.[43]Lusterware: Invented by Geber, who applied it to ceramic glazes in the 8th century.[44] The technique soon became popular in Persia from the 9th century, and lusterware was later produced in Egypt during the Fatimid caliphate in the 10th-12th centuries. While the production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread to Europe-first to Al-Andalus, notably at Malaga, and then to Italy, where it was used to enhance maiolica.Pottery factory: The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Extensive experimentation was carried out at the complex, which was two kilometres in length. Two other similar complexes have also been discovered.[29]Stonepaste ceramic: Invented in 9th-century Iraq,[45] it was a vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture, made primarily from non-refactory fire clay.[46]Tin-glazing: The tin-glazing of ceramics was invented by Muslim potters in 8th-century Basra, Iraq. Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first examples of this technique can be found as blue-painted ware in 8th-century Basra.[47]Tin-glazed pottery: The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in Iraq in the 9th century, the oldest fragments having been excavated during the First World War from the palace of Samarra about fifty miles north of Baghdad.[48] From there, it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain, before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century, and England, France and other European countries shortly after.[edit] Civil engineeringThe interiors of the Alhambra in Spain are decorated with arabesque designs. The minaret is a distinct feature of Islamic architecture. The spiralling minaret located at the Great Mosque of Samarra, Iraq built in 852, is one of the oldest.At 72.5 meters, the Qutab Minar was the tallest minaret until the 20th century, and remains the tallest brick and stone minaret in the world.The tallest minaret is currently the one at Hassan II Mosque, at 210 metres (689 ft) tall, pictured above.An illustration of patterned Girih tiles, found in Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. These featured the first quasicrystal patterns and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings.The norias in Hama on the Orontes River in Syria. The flywheel was first employed in a noria by Ibn Bassal in the 11th century.The first windmills were built in the Islamic world and introduced to Europe through Spain.During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the early Muslim Arab Empire was ahead of its time regarding domestic water systems such as water cleaning systems and advanced water transportation systems resulting in better agriculture, something that helped in issues related to Islamic hygienical jurisprudence.[49] Al-Jazari invented a variety of machines for raising water in 1206,[50] as well as water mills and water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata in the late 12th century.[51]Kerosene lamp, and litter collection facilities: Cordoba had the first facilities and waste containers for litter collection.[52] The first kerosene lamp was invented by Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi in the 9th century.[41]Surveying instruments: Muslim engineers invented a variety of surveying instruments for accurate levelling, including a wooden board with a plumb line and two hooks, an equilateral triangle with a plumb line and two hooks, and a "reed level". They also invented a rotating alidade used for accurate alignment, and a surveying astrolabe used for alignment, measuring angles, triangulation, finding the width of a river, and the distance between two points separated by an impassable obstruction.[53]Tar roads and pavements: Tar was a vital component of the first sealed tarmac roads. The streets of Baghdad were the first to be paved with tar from the 8th century AD. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.[9]Ventillator: The first ventillators were invented in Islamic Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo during the Middle Ages. These ventillators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200, who reported that almost every house in Cairo has a ventillator, and that they cost anywhere from 1 to 500 dinars depending on their sizes and shapes. Most ventillators in the city were oriented towards the Qibla (the direction of Mecca), as was the city in general.[54][edit] ArchitectureAcequia: A community operated waterway used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation, they were first introduced by the Moors in Al-Andalus before the 13th century.[17]Arabesque: An elaborative application of repeating geometric forms often found decorating the walls of mosques. Geometric artwork in the form of the Arabesque was not used in the Middle East or Mediterranean Basin until the Islamic Golden Age. Euclidean geometry as expounded on by Al-Abbās ibn Said al-Jawharī (ca. 800-860) in his Commentary on Euclid's Elements, the trigonometry of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta as elaborated on by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (ca. 780-850), and the development of spherical geometry[55] by Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī (940-998) and spherical trigonometry by Al-Jayyani (989-1079)[56] for determining the Qibla (direction to Mecca) and times of Salah prayers and Ramadan,[55] all served as an impetus for the art form that was to become the Arabesque.Bridge dam: The bridge dam was used to power a water wheel working a water-raising mechanism. The first was built in Dezful, Iran, which could raise 50 cubits of water for the water supply to all houses in the town. Similar bridge dams later appeared in other parts of the Islamic world.[57]Central heating through underfloor pipes: The hypocaust heating system used by the Romans continued to be in use around the Mediterranean region during late Antiquity and by the Umayyad caliphate. By the 12th century, Muslim engineers in Syria introduced an improved central heating system, where heat travelled through underfloor pipes from the furnace room, rather than through a hypocaust. This central heating system was widely used in bath-houses throughout the medieval Islamic world.[58]Cobwork: The earliest appearance of cobwork (tabya) dates back to the Maghreb and Al-Andalus in the 11th century, and was first described in detail by Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, who regarded it as a characteristically Muslim practice. Cobwork later spread to other parts of Europe from the 12th century onwards.[59]Geared and hydropowered water supply system: Al-Jazari developed the earliest water supply system to be driven by gears and hydropower, which was built in 13th century Damascus to supply water to its mosques and Bimaristan hospitals. The system had water from a lake turn a scoop-wheel and a system of gears which transported jars of water up to a water channel that led to mosques and hospitals in the city.[60]Girih tiles, quasicrystal pattern, and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tiling: Geometrical quasicrystal patterns were first employed in the girih tiles found in medieval Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. In 2007, Professor Peter Lu of Harvard University and Professor Paul Steinhardt of Princeton University published a paper in the journal Science suggesting that girih tilings possessed properties consistent with self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings such as the Penrose tilings, predating them by five centuries.[61][62]High-rise roof garden: The medieval Egyptian city of Fustat had a number of high-rise buildings which Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described as rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top storey complete with ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating them.[63]Minaret: The minaret is a distinctive architectural feature of Islamic architecture, especially mosques, dating back to the early centuries of Islam. Minarets are generally tall spires with onion-shaped crowns, usually either free standing or much taller than any surrounding support structure. The tallest minaret in pre-modern times was the Qutub Minar, which was 72.5 meters (237.9 ft) tall and was built in the 12th century, and it remains the tallest brick and stone minaret in the world. The tallest minaret in modern times is the one at Hassan II Mosque, which is 210 metres (689 ft) tall and was built in 1986.[edit] Industrial millingSee also: Muslim Agricultural Revolution A variety of industrial mills were active in the medieval Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and windmills, many of which were original inventions by Muslim engineers. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[64] These advances made it possible for many industrial operations that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be driven by machinery instead in the Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.[65]Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of water mill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Cordoba, Spain in the 12th century.[66]Factory milling installation: The first factory milling installations were built by Muslim engineers throughout every city and urban community in the Islamic world. For example, the factory milling complex in 10th century Baghdad could produce 10 tonnes of flour] every day.[67] The first large milling installations in Europe were built in 12th century Islamic Spain.[68]Flywheel-driven noria: See Mechanical technology below.Fulling mill: The first references to fulling mills are reported in Persia from the 10th century. By the time of the Crusades in the 11th century, fulling mills were active throughout the Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa to Central Asia.[64]Geared and wind powered gristmills with trip hammers: The first geared gristmills[69] were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for grinding corn and other seeds to produce meals, and many other industrial uses such as fulling cloth, husking rice, papermaking, pulping sugarcane, and crushing metallic ores before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both watermills and windmills. In order to adapt water wheels for gristmilling purposes, cams were used for raising and releasing trip hammers to fall on a material.[70] The first wind-powered gristmills driven by windmills were built in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries.[68]Hydropowered forge and finery forge: The first forge to be driven by a hydropowered water mill rather than manual labour, also known as a finery forge, was invented in 12th century Islamic Spain.[68]Paper mill: Paper was introduced into the Muslim world by Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas. Muslims made several improvements to papermaking, mainly the use of hydropower rather than manual labour to produce paper, and they built the first paper mills in Baghdad, Iraq, as early as 794. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.[71][72]Stamp mill: Stamp mills were first used by miners in Samarkand from as early as 973. They were used in medieval Persia for the purpose of crushing ore. By the 11th century, stamp mills were in widespread use throughout the Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa to Central Asia.[64]Sugar refinery: The first sugar refineries were built by Muslim engineers.[64] They were first driven by water mills, and then windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran.[68]Underground watermill: Other innovations that were unique to the Islamic world include the situation of watermills in the underground irrigation tunnels of a qanat and on the main canals of valley-floor irrigation systems.[68]Windmill: The first windmills were built in Sistan, Afghanistan, sometime between the 7th century and 9th century, as described by Muslim geographers. These were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[73] The first windmill may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th century amendment.[74] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[70] The first horizontal windmills were built in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries. They had a variety of uses, such as grinding grain, pumping water, and crushing sugar-cane.[68] A small primitive wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria, marking probably the first instance of a wind powering machine in history.[75][76] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[77][edit] CosmeticsA number of hygienic cosmetics were invented by Muslim chemists, cosmetologists and physicians.[78] Cosmetic dentistry and tooth bleaching: In his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), Abulcasis described methods for strengthening the gums and introduced the method of tooth bleaching using tooth whiteners.[79]Bangs: In the 9th century, Ziryab introduced a new hairstyle for women in Al-Andalus: a "shorter, shaped cut, with bangs on the forehead and the ears uncovered."[80]Beauty parlour and cosmetology school: In the 9th century, Ziryab opened the first beauty parlour and "cosmetology school" for women near Alcázar, Al-Andalus."[80]Chemical depilatory for hair removal: In the 9th century, Ziryab taught women in Al-Andalus "the shaping of eyebrows and the use of depilatories for removing body hair".[80]Hair care and hair dye: In his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), Abulcasis first described hair dyes for changing human hair color to blond or black hair, and hair care for correcting kinky or curly hair.[79] Dyestuff was also created by earlier Muslim chemists.[81]Lipstick, solid: In 1000 CE, the Andalusian Arab cosmetologist Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) invented solid lipsticks, which were perfumed stocks rolled and pressed in special molds, and he described them in his Al-Tasrif.[79]Pomade: Produced by Arabs.[14][edit] HygieneHand cream and lotion, and suntan lotion[disambiguation needed]: In his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), Abulcasis described the first hand creams and lotions, and the first early suntan lotions, describing their ingredients and benefits in depth.[79]Toothpaste, functional and pleasant: In the 9th century, the Persian musician and fashion designer Ziryab is known to have invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain.[82] The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are not currently known,[80] but unlike the earlier Egyptian and Roman toothpastes, Ziryab's toothpaste was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste."[82] In circa 1000, Abulcasis recommended a toothpaste made from cinnamon, nutmeg, cardamom and coriander leaves, as a remedy for bad breath resulting from eating garlic or onions.[79][edit] PerfumeryPerfume usage was recorded in the Arabian Peninsula since the 7th century, and Muslims made many advances in perfumery in the proceeding centuries. This included the extraction of numerous fragrances, as well as the cheap mass-production of incenses. Muslim scientists such as Al-Kindi elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Perfume industry: Established by Geber (Jabir) (b. 722, Iraq) and Al-Kindi (b. 801, Iraq).[83] Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil.[83] Al-Kindi carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products.Camphor: In the 9th century, the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) provided the earliest recipe for the production of camphor in his Kitab Kimiya' al-'Itr (Book of the Chemistry of Perfume).[84]Deodorants, under-arm and roll-on: In the 9th century, Ziryab invented under-arm deodorants in Al-Andalus.[23] In circa 1000, another under-arm deodorant was described in Al-Andalus by Abulcasis,[79] who also invented perfumed stocks, rolled and pressed in special moulds, similar to modern roll-on deodorants.[85]Extraction of fragrances through steam distillation: Introduced by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.Ghaliya: The preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and the use of various drugs and apparatus], was produced by al-Kindi.Musk and floral perfumes: Produced in the 11th-12th centuries in the Arabian Peninsula.[81]Jasmine and citrus perfumes: Muslims introduced new raw ingredients in perfumery, which were produced from different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials, which are still used in modern perfumery. These included jasmine from South and Southeast Asia, and citrus fruits from East Asia.Rose water: See Chemical substances above.[edit] InstitutionsA number of important economic, educational, legal and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the medieval Islamic world. Academic degree-granting university:[86] If the definition of a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate) like in the modern sense of the word, then the medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah("university" in Arabic) founded in the 9th century would be the first examples of such an institution.[87][88] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri.[89] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were founded in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[88][90] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah university which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah),[88] and had individual faculties[91] for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy, and logic in Islamic philosophy.[88] The modern academic robe worn by graduates was also adapted from the robe worn by the Alim (alumni).[92]Agency and Aval: The first agencies were the Hawala, mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the Aval in French law and the Avallo in Italian law. The words Aval and Avallo were themselves derived from Hawala. The transfer of debt, which was "not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions", was due to the large extent of the "trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages." The agency was also "an institution unknown to Roman law" as no "individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent." In Roman law, the "contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter in order to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him." On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law "had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general."[93]Assize of novel disseisin and contract protected by the action of debt: According to Professor John Makdisi, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt" has origins in "the Islamic Aqd", and "the English assize of novel disseisin" has origins in "the Islamic Istihqaq", in classical Maliki jurisprudence.[94]College: The origins of the college lie in the medieval Islamic world. The madrasah was a medieval Islamic college of law and theology, usually affiliated with a mosque, and was funded by early charitable trusts known as Waqf, the origins of the trust law.[87][95]Jury and jury trial: The closest predecessor to the English jury trial was the Lafif in the Maliki school of classical Islamic law and jurisprudence, which was developed between the 8th and 11th centuries. Like the English jury, the Islamic Lafif was a body of twelve members drawn from the neighborhood and sworn to tell the truth, who were bound to give a unanimous verdict, about matters "which they had personally seen or heard, binding on the judge, to settle the truth concerning facts in a case, between ordinary people, and obtained as of right by the plaintiff." According to John Makdisi, "no other institution in any legal institution studied to date shares all of these characteristics with the English jury."[94]The first observatories to serve as research institutes were built by Muslim astronomers. The most famous was the Maragheh observatory, the current status of which is pictured here. Observatory as a research institute: As opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times,[96] the astronomical observatories in the Islamic world were the first true observatories, in the sense that they functioned as early research institutes, like modern observatories.[86] The Islamic observatory was the first specialized astronomical institution with its own scientific staff,[97] director, astronomical program,[96] large astronomical instruments, and building where astronomical research and observations are carried out. Islamic observatories were also the first to employ enormously large astronomical instruments in order to improve the accuracy of their observations.[97] Famous examples include the observatories at Baghdad and Ray, Iran, the Maragheh observatory, Ulugh Beg's observatory at Samarqand, and the Istanbul observatory of al-Din.Public library and lending library:[86] A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.[98]Restaurant: See Food and drink above.Trust institution and charitable trust: The Waqfin Islamic law, which developed in the Islamic world from the 7th to 9th centuries, were the first charitable trust.[99] Every waqf was required to have a waqif (founder), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries.[100] Under both a waqf and a trust, "property is reserved, and its usufruct appropriated, for the benefit of specific individuals, or for a general charitable purpose; the corpus becomes inalienable; estates for life in favor of successive beneficiaries can be created" and "without regard to the law of inheritance or the rights of the heirs; and continuity is secured by the successive appointment of trustees or mutawillis."[101][edit] Medical institutionsSee also: Bimaristan, Islamic medicine, and Islamic psychology Apothecary, Drugstore, and Pharmacy: The first drugstores and pharmacies were opened by Muslim pharmacists in Baghdad in 754,[2] while the first apothecary shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners at the time.[102]Medical school: The Islamic Bimaristans were not only hospitals, but also the first medical schools and universities to issue diplomas. The first of these institutions was opened in Baghdad during the time of Harun al-Rashid. They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter. Physicians and surgeons at Islamic hospital-universities gave lectures to medical students and diplomas were issued to students who completed their education and were qualified to be doctors of medicine.[103]Psychiatric hospital: The first psychiatric hospitals were built in the medieval Islamic world. The first of these were built built in Baghdad in 705, Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in 800.[104]Public hospital: The Islamic Bimaristans were the first free public hospitals, and replaced the healing temples and sleep temples found in ancient times.[86] They were hospital in the modern sense, an establishment where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff. In this way, Muslim physicians were the first to make a distinction between a hospital and other different forms of sleep and healing temples, hospices, assylums, lazarets and leper-houses, all of which in ancient times were more concerned with isolating the sick and the mad from society "rather than to offer them any way to a true cure." The medieval Bimaristan hospitals are thus considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word.[105]Quarantine: The discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the use of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases was introduced by Avicenna in The Canon of Medicine (1025).[106]Geriatric medicine: Arabs were the first to write books on Geriatric medicine.[edit] Mechanical technologyAl-Jazari invented the bayonet fitting, camshaft, bolted lock, laminate, paper model, calibrated orifice, sand casting, gate operator, linkage, water level, crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pumps, double-action reciprocating piston suction pump, programmable humanoid robot band, programmable analog computer, flush mechanism, and automated servants. Al-Jazari's candle clock employed a bayonet fitting for the first time in 1206.Drawing of the self-trimming lamp in Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's 9th century Arabic treatise on mechanical devices, the Book of Ingenious Devices.Diagram of a hydropowered water-raising machine from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by Al-Jazari in 1206.The double-action reciprocating suction piston pump with a valve and crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism, from a manuscript of Al-Jazari, considered to be a "father of modern day engineering".The programmable humanoid robot band of Al-Jazari, considered to be a "father of robotics".The programmable humanoid robot band designed by Al-Jazari in 1206.The hand washing automaton with a flush mechanism designed by Al-Jazari in 1206.Artificial thunder, lightning and weather simulation: Abbas Ibn Firnas invented an artificial weather simulation room, in which spectators saw stars and clouds, and were astonished by artificial thunder and lightning, which were produced by mechanisms hidden in his basement laboratory.[107][108]Bayonet fitting: Al-Jazari's candle clock in 1206 employed, for the first time, a bayonet fitting, a fastener mechanism still used in modern times.[109]Camshaft: The first known use of cams on a camshaft were invented in Iraq by Al-Jazari in 1206.[110] His camshaft was attached to a water wheel and was used to operate levers moving robotic musicians in his castle clock (see Analog computers below).[111]Bolted lock, and mechanical controls: According to Donald Routledge Hill, Al-Jazari first described several early mechanical controls, including "a large metal door...and a lock with four bolts."[70]Complex segmental and epicyclic gearing: Segmental gears ("a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[112]) and epicyclic gears were both first invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain. He employed both these types of gears in the gear trains of his mechanical clocks. Simple gears have been known before him, but this was the the first known case of complex gears used to transmit high torque.[17] Segmental gears were also later employed by Al-Jazari in 1206. Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote: "Segmental gears first clearly appear in Al-Jazari, in the West they emerge in Giovanni de Dondi's astronomical clock finished in 1364, and only with the great Sienese engineer Francesco di Giorgio (1501) did they enter the general vocabulary of European machine design."[113]Design and construction methods: According to Donald Routledge Hill, "We see for the first time in Al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand."[70]Escapement mechanism in rotating wheel: Al-Jazari invented a method for controlling the speed of rotation of a wheel using an escapement mechanism in 1206.[114]Fountain pen: The earliest historical record of a reservoir fountain pen dates back to the 10th century. In 953, Al-Muizz Lideenillah, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action. As recorded by Qadi al-Nu'man al-Tamimi (d. 974) in his Kitdb al-Majalis WA 'l-musayardt, al-Mu'izz instructed and commissioned the construction of a fountain reservoir pen.[115][116]Gate operator: The first automatic doors were created by Hero of Alexandria and Chinese engineers under Emperor Yang of Sui prior to Islam. This was followed by the first hydraulics-powered automatic gate operators, invented by Al-Jazari in 1206.[117] Al-Jazari also created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water clocks.[70]Intermittent working: The concept of minimizing intermittent working is first implied in one of al-Jazari's saqiya chain pumps, which was for the purpose of maximising the efficiency of the saqiya chain pump.[118]Metal block printing and printed amulet: Printing was known as tarsh in Arabic. After woodblock printing appeared in the Islamic world, which may have been adopted from China, a unique type of block printing was invented in Islamic Egypt during the 9th-10th centuries: print blocks made from metals such as tin, lead and cast iron, as well as stone, glass and clay. The first printed amulets were invented in the Islamic world, and were printed with Arabic calligraphy using metal block printing. This technique, however, appears to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world, since metal and other non-wooden forms of block printing were unknown in China or Korea, which later developed metal movable type printing instead. Block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China at least 100 years ago.[119]Metronome: According to Lynn Townsend White, Jr., the Andalusian polymath Abbas Ibn Firnas was the inventor of an early metronome in the 9th century.[30]On/off switch: The on/off switch, an important feedback control principle, was invented by Muslim engineers between the 9th and 12th centuries, and it was employed in a variety of automata and water clocks. The mechanism later had an influence on the development of the electric on/off switch which appeared in the 1950s.[120]In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Some of their original inventions include:Automatic control[17]Feedback controller[121]Differential pressure[122]Fail-safe system[70]Float chamber[17]Hurricane lamp[70]Gas mask[70]Grab and Clamshell grab[70]Self-feeding lamp and self-trimming lamp: Invented by the eldest brother Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir.[70]Trick drinking vessels[70]Valve, plug valve,[70][121] and float valve.[121]In 1206, Al-Jazari also described over fifty mechanical devices in six different categories in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, most of which he invented himself, along with construction drawings. Along with his other mechanical inventions described above, some of the other mechanical devices he first described include: phlebotomy measures, linkage, water level, and devices able to elevate water from shallow wells or flowing rivers.[50][51][123][124][edit] AutomataMark E. Rosheim summarizes the advances in robotics made by Arab engineers as follows:"Unlike the Greek designs, these Arab examples reveal an interest, not only in dramatic illusion, but in manipulating the environment for human comfort. Thus, the greatest contribution the Arabs made, besides preserving, disseminating and building on the work of the Greeks, was the concept of practical application. This was the key element that was missing in Greek robotic science."[125] "The Arabs, on the other hand, displayed an interest in creating human-like machines for practical purposes but lacked, like other preindustrial societies, any real impetus to pursue their robotic science."[126]Mechanical singing bird automata: Caliph al-Mamun had a silver and golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 827, which had the features of an automatic machine. There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built by Muslim engineers at the time.[127][128] The Abbasid Caliph al-Muktadir also had a golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 915, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing.[127][129]Programmable automatic flute player: The Banū Mūsā invented an automatic flute player which appears to have been the first programmable machine, and which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[130]Programmable analog computer: See Analog computers below.Programmable humanoid robot band: Al-Jazari (1136-1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206, as opposed to the non-programmable automata in ancient times. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[131] According to Charles B. Fowler, the automata were a "robot band" which performed "more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection."[132]Hand washing automaton with flush mechanism: Al-Jazari invented a hand washing automaton first employing the flush mechanism now used in modern flush toilets. It features a female humanoid automaton standing by a basin filled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water drains and the female automaton refills the basin.[133]Peacock fountain with automated humanoid servants: Al-Jazari's "peacock fountain" was a sophisticated hand washing device featuring humanoid automata as servants which offer soap and towels. Mark E. Rosheim describes it as follows: "Pulling a plug on the peacock's tail releases water out of the beak; as the dirty water from the basin fills the hollow base a float rises and actuates a linkage which makes a servant figure appear from behind a door under the peacock and offer soap. When more water is used, a second float at a higher level trips and causes the appearance of a second servant figure - with a towel!"[125][edit] PumpsCrankshaft-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pumps: The first known use of a crankshaft in a chain pump was in one of Al-Jazari's saqiya machines described in 1206.[118] Al-Jazari also constructed a water-raising saqiya chain pump which was run by hydropower rather than manual labour, though the Chinese were also using hydropower for other chain pumps prior to him. Saqiya machines like the ones he described have been supplying water in Damascus since the 13th century up until modern times,[134] and were in everyday use throughout the medieval Islamic world.[118]Crankshaft-driven screw and screwpump: In ancient times, the screw and screwpump were driven by a treadwheel, but from the 12th and 13th centuries, Muslim engineers operated them using the crankshaft.[135]Double-action piston suction pump with reciprocating motion: In 1206, al-Jazari demonstrates the first suction pipes and suction piston pump, the first use of double-action, and one of the earliest valve operations, when he invented a twin-cylinder double-action reciprocating suction piston pump, which seems to have had a direct significance in the development of modern engineering. This pump is driven by a water wheel, which drives, through a system of gears, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction and delivery pipes. The delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system. This pump is remarkable for being the earliest known use of a true suction pipe in a pump.[136]Flywheel-driven chain pump and noria: A flywheel is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine. The mechanical flywheel was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-1075) of Islamic Spain, who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the chain pump (saqiya) and noria.[137]Weight-driven pump: Most ancient and medieval pumps were either driven by manual labour or hydraulics. The first weight-driven pump was described as part of a perpetual motion water-raising machine in a medieval Arabic manuscript written some time after Al-Jazari. It featured a mercury-powered clockwork escapement mechanism and had two out gear-wheels driven by lead weights which mesh with a large central gear-wheel.[138][edit] Medical productsSee also: Islamic medicine [edit] Drugs and medicationsMuslim physicians pioneered a number of drugs and medications for use in medicine, including:Avicenna, considered the "father of modern medicine", pioneered clinical pharmacology, and described inhalational anesthetics and various drugs and medications, in The Canon of Medicine (1025). Alcohol as an antiseptic: The application of pure alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent, and the use of alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic, was introduced by Muslim physicians and surgeons in the 10th century.[9]Cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, and Hindiba: Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025) attempted the earliest known treatments for cancer. One method he discovered was the "Hindiba", a herbal compound drug which Ibn al-Baitar later identified as having "anticancer" properties and which could also treat other tumors and neoplastic disorders. Avicenna wrote a separate supplement treatise dedicated to the pharmacotherapy of Hindiba, giving details on the drug's properties and uses, and he then gives instructions on its preparation as medication.[139] After recognizing its usefulness in treating neoplastic disorders, Hindiba was patented in 1997 by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan and John K. Snyder.[140]Chemotherapeutic drugs: Pioneered by Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), who introduced the use of chemical substances such as vitriol, copper, mercuric and arsenic salts, sal ammoniac, gold scoria, chalk, clay, coral, pearl, tar, bitumen and alcohol for medical purposes.[141]Clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, and efficacy test: The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine in 1025.[142] His emphasis on tested medicines laid the foundations for an experimental approach to pharmacology.[143] The Canon laid out the rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology[144] and modern clinical trials,[145] randomized controlled trials[146][147] and efficacy tests.[148][149]Cough medicine and syrup: The use of syrups for treating coughs originates from medieval Arabic physicians.[14][150]Drugs, foods, herbs, plants and chemical substances: In antiquity, Dioscorides listed about 500 plants in the 1st century. Muslim botanists, chemists and pharmacists dicovered many more during the Middle Ages. For example, Al-Dinawari described more than 637 plant drugs in the 9th century,[151] and Ibn al-Baitar described at least 1,400 different plants, foods and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries, in the 13th century.[152] In total, at least 2,000 medicinal substances were discovered by Muslim botanists, chemists and pharmacists.[2]Epilepsy and seizure medications: Abulcasis, in his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), invented medications called Ghawali and Lafayfe for the treatment of epilepsy and seizure.[79]Medicinal-grade alcohol: Produced through distillation. These distillation devices for use in chemistry and medicine were manufactured on a large scale in the 10th century.Parasitology: Parasites were first discovered by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), when he discovered the cause of scabies.[153] He recommended specific substances to destroy microbes, and the application of sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite.Pharmacopoeia: The first pharmacopoeia books were written by Muslim physicians.[154] These included Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine and other pharmacopoeia books by Abu-Rayhan Biruni in the early 11th century,[155] Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century (and printed in 1491),[156] and Ibn al-Baitar in the 14th century.[9]Phytotherapy, Taxus baccata, and calcium channel blocker: Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine introduced the medicinal use of Taxus baccata L. He named this herbal drug "Zarnab" and used it as a cardiac remedy. This was the first known use of a calcium channel blocker drug, which were not used in the Western world until the 1960s.[157]Sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction drugs: Muslim physicians identified the issue of sexual and erectile dysfunction, and they were the first to prescribe medication for the treatment of the problem. They developed several methods of therapy for this issue, including the single drug method where a drug is prescribed, and a "combination method of either a drug or food." These drugs were also occasionally used for recreational drug use to improve male sexuality in general by those who did not suffer from sexual dysfunctions. Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through topical and transurethral means. Sexual dysfunctions were being treated with tested drugs in the Islamic world since the 9th century until the 16th century by a number of Muslim physicians and pharmacists, including al-Razi, Thabit bin Qurra, Ibn Al-Jazzar, Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine), Averroes, Ibn al-Baitar, and Ibn al-Nafis (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine).[158]Topical cream: For the relief and treatment of common colds, Abulcasis invented Muthallaathat, which was prepared from camphor, musk and honey, similar to the modern Vicks Vapour Rub.[79][edit] Surgical instrumentsA wide variety of surgical instruments and techniques were invented in the Muslim world, as well as the refinement of earlier instruments and techniques. In particular, over 200 surgical instruments were listed by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) in the Al-Tasrif (1000), many of which were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced. Adhesive bandage and plaster: Introduced by Abulcasis.[159][160]Bone saw: Invented by Abulcasis.[10]Cancer surgery: Another method for treating cancer first described by Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine was a surgical treatment. He stated that the excision should be radical and that all diseased tissue should be removed, which included the use of amputation or the removal of veins running in the direction of the tumor. He also recommended the use of cauterization for the area being treated if necessary.[159]Cataract extraction, hypodermic needle, injection syringe, and suction: In circa 1000, the Muslim ophthalmologist Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul was the first to successfully extract cataracts. He invented a hollow metallic syringe hypodermic needle, which he applied through the sclerotic and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction.[161]Catgut, use of: The use of catgut for internal stitching was introduced by Abulcasis.Cotton dressing and bandage: The earliest known use of cotton (derived from the Arabic word qutn) as a dressing for controlling hemorrhage, was described by Abulcasis.[159]Curette, retractor, sound, surgical spoon, surgical hook, and surgical rod: Invented by Abulcasis in his Al-Tasrif(1000).[162]Fetus extraction: Abulcasis, in his Al-Tasrif(1000), first described the surgical procedure of extractiing a dead fetus using forceps.[163]General anaesthesia, General anaesthetic, oral anesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic, and narcotic-soaked sponge: Surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face, were introduced by the Muslim anesthesiologists, Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) and Ibn Zuhr, in Islamic Spain. Sigrid Hunke wrote: "The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan."[164]Illustrated surgical atlas: Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery), produced in the 15th century, was the first surgical wiktionary:atlas|atlas. Surgical operations were illustrated for the first time in the Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye.[165]Ligature: Introduced by Abulcasis in the Al-Tasrif, for the blood control of arteries in lieu of cauterization.[166]Surgical suture: Abulcasis in his Al-Tasrif.[167]Tracheotomy, correct description of: While tracheostomy may have possibly been portrayed on ancient Egyptian tablets, the first clear and correct description of the tracheotomy operation for suffocating patients was described by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.[167][168][edit] Navigational technologySee also: Geography in medieval Islam, Astronomy in medieval Islam, and Physics in medieval Islam The 32-point compass rose was invented by Arab navigators. Shown here is the one by Jorge de Aguiar (1492).[edit] InstrumentsBaculus: The baculus, used for nautical astronomy, originates from Islamic Spain and was later used by Portuguese navigators for long-distance travel.[169]Cartographic grids: Invented in 10th-century Baghdad.[170]Compass dial: In the early 14th century, Ibn al-Shatir invented the compass dial, a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of Salah prayers.[171]Compass rose: The Arabs invented the 32-point compass rose during the Middle Ages.[172]Navigational astrolabe: Invented in the Islamic world, it employed the use of a polar projection system.[173]Orthographical astrolabe: Invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century.[174]Terrestrial globe: See Globes below.[edit] TransportKamal: Arab navigators invented a rudimentary sextant known as a kamal, used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars, in the late 9th century.[175] They employed in the Indian Ocean from the 10th century,[176] They employed it in the Indian Ocean from the 10th century,[176] and it was adopted by Indian navigators soon after,[177] followed by Chinese navigators some time before the 16th century.[178] The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing,[176] and was thus the earliest step towards the use of quantitative methods in navigation.[178]Rudder with tackles, permanent sternpost-mounted: The Arabs used a sternpost-mounted rudder which differed technically from both its European and Chinese counterparts. On their ships "the rudder is controlled by two lines, each attached to a crosspiece mounted on the rudder head perpendicular to the plane of the rudder blade."[179] The earliest evidence comes from the Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Marifat al-Aqalim ('The Best Divisions for the Classification of Regions') written by al-Muqaddasi in 985.[180] According to Lawrence V. Mott, the "idea of attaching the rudder to the sternpost in a relatively permanent fashion, therefore, must have been an Arab invention independent of the Chinese."[179]Minaret of the Great Mosque at Córdoba, where Abbas Ibn Firnas flew from in the 9th century. [edit] AviationParachute: In 9th century Islamic Spain, Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firnas) invented a primitive version of the parachute.[181][182][183][184] John H. Lienhard described it in The Engines of Our Ingenuity as follows: "In 852, a new Caliph and a bizarre experiment: A daredevil named Armen Firman decided to fly off a tower in Cordova. He glided back to earth, using a huge winglike cloak to break his fall."[185][edit] Scientific instrumentsSee also: Islamic astronomy, Islamic physics, and Alchemy and chemistry in Islam Muslim astronomers developed a number of astronomical instruments, including several variations of the astrolabe, originally invented by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE, but with considerable improvements made to the device in the Muslim world. These instruments were used by Muslims for a variety of purposes. In the 10th century, Al-Sufi first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, related to astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla (direction to Mecca), Salah prayers, etc.[186][edit] Analog computersThe universal latitude-independent astrolabe was invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa1015. The one shown here is from Persia in the 18th century. The spherical astrolabe was invented by Muslim astronomers. This is the earliest surviving example from the 14th century.Equatorium: Invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015,[17] it was a mechanical analog computer device for finding the longitudes and positions of the moon, sun, and planet]s, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position.Saphaea: The first universal latitude-independent astrolabe, invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in 11th century Islamic Spain. Unlike its predecessors, it did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere on the Earth.[187]Zuraqi: A heliocentric astrolabe where the Earth is in motion rather than the sky, by al-Sijzi in the 11th century.[188]Fixed-wired knowledge processing machine: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's hodometer[189] was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine in the early 11th century.[190]Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer: Featured a gear train and gear-wheels, and was invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.[191]Mechanical geared astrolabe: Invented by Ibn Samh (c. 1020).[192]Linear astrolabe ("staff of al-Tusi"): Invented by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī in the 12th century.[193]Programmable analog computer: The castle clock, an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer.[111] It displayed the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a crescent moon-shaped pointer travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour,[70][194] and five robotic musicians who play music when moved by levers operated by a camshaft attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.[111]Mechanical geared astrolabe with calendar computer: Invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[195]Plate of Conjunctions: A computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur,[196] and for performing linear interpolation,[197] invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century.Planetary computer: The Plate of Zones, a mechanical planetary computer which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, was invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century. It could predict the true positions in longitude of the sun and moon,[197] and the planets in terms of elliptical orbits;[198] the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the ecliptic of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an alidade and ruler.[199][edit] Laboratory apparatusGeber invented the alembic, the first still with a retort, and the first distillation device to fully purify chemical substances. Alembic, still, and retort: Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) invented the alembic in the 8th century. This was the first still[3] with a retort,[200] and the first distillation device to fully purify chemical substances.Conical measure: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century.[201][202]Hydrostatic balance and steelyard: Al-Khazini in 1121.[203]Laboratory flask and pycnometer: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.[203]Refrigerated coil and refrigerated tubing: In the 11th century, Avicenna invented the refrigerated coil, which condenses aromatic vapours.[204][205] This was a breakthrough in distillation technology and he made use of it in his steam distillation process, which requires refrigerated tubing, to produce essential oils.[11]Thermometer and air thermometer: Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.[206]Tools for drug preparation: Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) first described the following tools for the preparation of drugs (li-tadbir al-aqaqir): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (qar aq anbiq dhu-khatm), receiving matras (qabila), blind still (without evacuation tube) (al-anbiq al-ama), aludel (al-uthal), goblets (qadah), flasks (qarura or quwarir), rosewater flasks (ma wariyya), cauldron (marjal aw tanjir), earthenware pots varnished on the inside with their lids (qudur aq tanjir), water bath or sand bath (qadr), oven (al-tannur in Arabic, athanor in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating aludel(mustawqid), funnels, sieves, and filters.[6]Tools for melting substances: Al-Razi (Rhazes), in his Secretum secretorum (Latinized title), described the following original tools for melting chemical substances (li-tadhwib): crucible (bawtaqa)[6] and kilns with superimposed crucibles known as but bar but (crucible on crucible) in Arabic and botus barbatusin Latin.[207][edit] Mural instrumentsThe first sextant was built in Ray, Iran by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. The earliest surviving sextant is Ulugh Beg's mural "Fakhri Sextant" constructed in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, during the 15th century, pictured above. Quadrant and mural instrument: Invented by Al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad, Iraq.[208]Almucantar quadrant: Invented in the medieval Islamic world. It employed the use of trigonometry. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic.[209]Horary quadrant: For specific latitude]s, by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad.[208]Sine quadrant: For astronomical calculations, by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad.[208]Quadrans Vetus: Meaning "Old Quadrant", this was a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude and at any time of the year to determine the time, as well as the times of Salah, invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. One of its main purposes in the Islamic world was to determine the times of Salah prayers.[210]Quadrans Novus: An astrolabic quadrant invented in Egypt in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Novus" (New Quadrant).[211]Sextant: The first sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. It was a very large sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements, which he described his in his treatise, On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities.[212] In the 15th century, Ulugh Beg constructed the mural "Fakhri Sextant", which had a radius of approximately 36 meters. Constructed in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.[edit] Optical instrumentsIn ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics".[213] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. Observation tube: The "observation tube" (without lens) was invented by al-Battani (Albatenius) (853-929) and first described by al-Biruni (973-1048). These observation tubes were later adopted in Europe, where they influenced the development of the telescope.[214]Modern optics: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), with his Book of Optics (1021), refuted the emission theory of vision, and correctly explained and proved the modern intromission theory of vision, through extensive experimentation. He thus initiated a revolution in optics[215] and visual perception,[216] for which he is regarded as the "father of modern optics".[217]Camera obscura: Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura,[10] a precursor to the modern camera.Pinhole camera: Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters.[10]Magnifying glass: The earliest evidence of "a magnifying device, a convex lens forming a magnified image", dates back the Book of Optics published by Ibn al-Haytham in 1021. The Latin translation of his work was instrumental to the later inventions of eyeglasses,[218] the telescope,[219] and the microscope.[220][edit] Other instrumentsAn alidade (al-idhâdah "ruler" in Arabic). Alidade: Invented in the Islamic world. The term "alidade" is itself derived from Arabic word al-idhâdah"ruler".Astrolabic clock: Ibn al-Shatir in the early 14th century.[221]Astrometric devices: Produced in Islamic Spain around 1015.Astronomical compass: The first astronomical uses of the magnetic compass is found in a treatise on astronomical instruments written by the Yemeni sultan al-Ashraf in 1282. This was the first reference to the compass in astronomical literature.[222]Compendium instrument: A multi-purpose astronomical instrument, first constructed by the Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Shatir in the 13th century. His compendium featured an alidade and polar sundial among other things. Al-Wafa'i developed another compendium in the 15th century which he called the "equatorial circle", which also featured a horizontal sundial. These compendia later became popular in Renaissance Europe.[223]Shadow square: An instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade for angular observations, invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th-century Baghdad.[224][edit] Timekeeping devicesA sundial in Seville, Andalusia. The first universal and polar-axis sundials were invented by Muslim engineers. The elephant clock from Al-Jazari's manuscript in 1206. This was the earliest clock to employ a flow regulator, a closed-loop system, and an automaton like a cuckoo clock].[edit] Astronomical clocksMuslim astronomers and engineers constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. [9] Timekeeping astrolabe: In the 10th century, al-Sufi described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, including timekeeping, particularly for the times of Salah prayers and Ramadan.[186]Geared mechanical lunisolar calendar computer: See Analog computers above.Geared mechanical astrolabe: Featured a calendar computer and gear-wheels, and was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[195]Monumental water-powered astronomical clocks: Al-Jazari invented monumental water powered astronomical clocks which displayed moving models of the sun, moon, and stars. His largest astronomical clock displayed the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits. Another innovative feature of the clock was a pointer which travelled across the top of a gateway and caused automatic doors to open every hour.[70]Programmable castle clock: See Analog computers above.Quadrans Vetus: See Mural instruments above.[edit] Clocks with gears and escapementsGeared clock: The first geared clock was invented by the 11th-century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia; it was a water clock that employed both segmental and epicyclic gearing.[17] Other monumental water clocks constructed by medieval Muslim engineers also employed complex gear trains and arrays of automata.[225] The first European clock to employ these complex gears was the astronomical clock created by Giovanni de Dondi in c. 1365.[17]Weight-driven mercury clock: A mercury clock, employing a mercury escapement mechanism[225] and a clock face similar to an astrolabe dial, was described in a Spanish language work for Alfonso X in 1277, compiled from earlier Arabic sources that likely date back to the 11th century.[17] The Jewish author of the relevant section, Rabbi Isaac, constructed the mercury clock using principles described by a philosopher named "Iran", identified with Heron of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD), on how heavy objects may be lifted.[226] Knowledge of the mercury clock was later transmitted to other parts of Europe through translations.[9][17]Weight-driven water clock: Arab engineers invented weight-driven water clocks, where heavy floats were used as weights and a constant-head system was used as an escapement mechanism,[17] which was present in in the hydraulic controls they used to make heavy floats descend at a slow and steady rate.[225]Weight-driven water-powered scribe clock: In 1206, Al-Jazari invented some of the earliest weight-driven water clocks, including the water-powered scribe clock. This water-powered portable clock was a meter high and half a meter wide. The scribe with his pen was synonymous to the hour hand of a modern clock. This is an example of an ingenious water system by Al-Jazari.[51][227] Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe clock was reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum (London) in 1976.[edit] DialsUniversal sundial: A universal sundial for all latitudes, used for timekeeping and for the determination of the times of Salah, was produced in 9th-century Baghdad.[228]Navicula de Venetiis: A universal horary dial used for accurate timekeeping by the sun and stars, and could be observed from any latitude, invented in 9th century Baghdad.[229] This was later considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the Renaissance.[170]Polar-axis sundial: The ancient sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, they indicated unequal hours-also called temporary hours-that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in trigonometry by Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[230][231]Compass dial: See Instruments above.[edit] Water clocksGeared water clock: See Clocks with gears and escapements above.Elephant clock: The elephant clock described by al-Jazari in 1206 is notable for several innovations. It was the first clock in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of time, which in this case was a humanoid robot in the form of a mahout striking a cymbal and a mechanical bird chirping like a cuckoo clock; the first mechanism to employ a flow regulator; and the earliest example of a closed-loop system in a mechanism.[232] The float regulator employed in the clock later had an important influence during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, when it was employed in the boiler of a steam engine and in domestic water systems.[17]Programmable castle clock: See Analog computers above.Weight-driven water clock: See Clocks with gears and escapements above.Weight-driven water-powered scribe clock: See Clocks with gears and escapements above.New water clocks discovery in the Book of secrets is shown in the Museum of Islamic Art; Doha, Qatar. References here: The Book of Secrets[edit] Other inventionsAl-Kindi's 9th century Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages was the first book on cryptanalysis and frequency analysis. Geomantic instrument, Egypt or Syria, 1241-1242 CE, made by Muhammad ibn Khutlukh al Mawsuli. British Museum.The lute was adopted from the Arab world. 1568 print.The Arabic four-stringed oud was the ancestor of the lute and guitar.The Arabic rebab was the ancestor of the rebec and the violin.Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the History of Medicine:"The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra, chemistry, and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as street lamps, window-panes, firework, string instruments, cultivated fruits, perfumes, spices, etc."[233]Other inventions from the Islamic world include:Airmail system utilizing homing pigeons by the Fatimid Caliph Aziz, and advances in music theory (see Arabic music) and irrigation techniques (see Muslim Agricultural Revolution).[234][235][236]Cryptanalysis and frequency analysis: In cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by 9th-century Arabian polymath, Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.[237] It has been suggested that close textual study of the Qur'an first brought to light that Arabic has a characteristic letter frequency. Its use spread, and similar systems were widely used in European states by the time of the Renaissance.Experimental psychology: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) is considered to be the founder of experimental psychology,[238] for his experimental approach to the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions.[239]Geomancy: The most widely accepted origin for this practice is in the medieval Arabic world.[240]Fireproof paper, glow-in-the-dark ink, rust-free iron, and waterproof textile: According to Ismail al-Faruqi and Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, "In response to Jafar al-Sadik's wishes, [Jabir ibn Hayyan] invented a kind of paper that resisted fire, and an ink that could be read at night. He invented an additive which, when applied to an iron surface, inhibited rust and when applied to a textile, would make it water repellent."[241]Fustian: The original medieval fustian was a stout but respectable cloth with a cotton weft and a linen warp, derived from El-Fustat, the name of a suburb of Cairo where this cloth was originally manufactured.[242][243]Graph paper, and orthogonal and regular grids: The first known use of graph paper dates back to the medieval Islamic world, where weavers often carefully drew and encoded their patterns onto graph paper prior to weaving.[244] Islamic quadrants used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century also introduced markings with orthogonal and regular grids that are still identical to modern graph paper.[245][246]Persian carpet and cheque system[10]Scientific method, experimental science, and experimental physics: The scientific method was pioneered by the Muslim scientist and physicist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who emphasized the role of experimentation and mathematics in obtaining the results in his Book of Optics (1021).[247] Due to his formulation of a modern quantitative, empirical and experimental approach to physics and science, he is also considered the pioneer of experimental science[248] and experimental physics,[249] and some have described him as the "first scientist" for these reasons.[250][edit] Musical instrumentsSee also: Arabic music, Islamic music, and Andalusian classical music Albogue, alboka, hornpipe, clarinet, and single-reed instrument: The earliest known hornpipes, clarinets and single-reed instruments were the albogue and alboka, both derived from the "al-bûq" (البوق) (literally "the trumpet" or "the horn") used in medieval Arabic music and Islamic music. The instrument was brought into Iberia by the Arab conquest.[251]Guitar, lute, and oud: The modern guitar (qitarin Arabic) is descended from the four-string oud brought by the Moors after the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century, and which evolved into the modern lute.[252] The four-string guitar introduced by the Moors had eventually evolved into two types in Spain: the guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) which had a rounded back, wide fingerboard and several soundholes, and then by 1200, the guitarra latina (Latin guitar) which resembled the modern guitar with one soundhole and a narrower neck.[253]Herdy Gerdy and stringed keyboard instrument: The earliest stringed instrument with a musical keyboard, an ancestor of the piano, was the hurdy gurdy, but its origins are uncertain. According to a theory proposed by Marianne Bröcker, an instrument similar to the hurdy gurdy is first mentioned in an Arabic musical compendium written by Al Zirikli in the 10th century.[254]Long-distance organ: A long-distance hydraulic organ that could be heard from sixty miles away was first described in the medieval Arabic treatise Sirr al-asrar and later translated into Latin by Roger Bacon in the 13th century.[255]Mechanical musical instrument and automatic hydraulic organ: The Banū Mūsā brothers invented "the earliest known mechanical musical instrument", in this case a hydropowered organ which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. According to Charles B. Fowler, this "cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century."[256]Programmable automatic flute player: The Banū Mūsā invented an automatic flute player which appears to have been the first programmable machine, and which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[130]Timpani, naker, and naqareh: The modern timpani (kettle drum) evolved from the naker, the direct ancestor of most timpani, were were derived from the Arabic naqareh and brought to 13th century Continental Europe by Saracens and Crusaders.[251][257]Rebec, and rebab: The rebec was in use since the 10th century,[258] and was derived from the rebab which originated in medieval Arabic music and Islamic music.[251][edit] See alsoIslamic contributions to Medieval EuropeIslamic Golden AgeMuslim Agricultural RevolutionScience in medieval IslamTimeline of Islamic science and engineeringTimeline of historic inventions[edit] Notes^ Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong:"There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East-Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia; to the great civilizations of Asia-India, China; and to the civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. There are two exceptions: Christendom and Islam. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary." ^ a b cd S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", Med Arh. 51 (1-2), p. 47-50.^ a b Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. Special:Booksources.^ a b cd Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 195.^ Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology: Towards Motivating the Muslim Child", OISE Papers in STSE Education, Vol. 3.^ a b cd Georges C. Anawati, "Arabic alchemy", p. 868, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 853-902)^ a b cd e f gh Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29.^ a b cd Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246-258 [247]^ a b cd e f g Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). Miracle of Islamic Science, Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. Special:Booksources.^ a b cd e f gPaul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.^ a b c Marlene Ericksen (2000). Healing with Aromatherapy, p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. Special:Booksources.^ Ahmad Y Hassan, The Colouring of Gemstones, The Purifying and Making of Pearls, And Other Useful Recipes^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Arabic Alchemy: Science of the Art". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2010.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29.^ a b cd e George Rafael, A is for Arabs, Salon.com, January 8, 2002.^ a b c Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science)^ Olga Pikovskaya, Repaying the West's Debt to Islam, BusinessWeek, March 29, 2005^ a b cd e f gh i j kl m Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering, History of Science and Technology in Islam^ Khairallah, Amin A. (1946), Outline of Arabic Contributions to Medicine, chapter 10, Beirut^ Mokyr, Joel (2002), Twenty-Five Centuries of Technological Change, p. 25, Special:Booksources^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29.^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources, History of Science and Technology in Islam^ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 131, Special:Booksources^ a b Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marin (1994), The Legacy of Muslim Spain, p. 117, Brill Publishers, Special:Booksources^ a b Ahmad Y Hassan, Assessment of Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, History of Science and Technology in Islam.^ a b Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Manufacture of Coloured Glass". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%209.htm. Retrieved on 2007-09-03.^ a b Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Colouring of Gemstones, The Purifying and Making of Pearls And Other Useful Recipes". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2092.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29.^ R. S. Elliott (1966). Electromagnetics, Chapter 1. McGraw-Hill.^ a b Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia, Vol. II, p. 343-345, Routledge, New York, London.^ a b Henderson, J.; McLoughlin, S. D.; McPhail, D. S. (2004), "Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria", Archaeometry 46 (3): 439-68^ a b Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), pp. 97-111 [100]:"Ibn Firnas was a polymath: a physician, a rather bad poet, the first to make glass from stones (quartz?), a student of music, and inventor of some sort of metronome." ^ Roshdi Rashed (1990), "A Pioneer in Anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on Burning Mirrors and Lenses", Isis 81 (3), p. 464-491 [464-468].^ Kochmann, W.; Reibold M., Goldberg R., Hauffe W., Levin A. A., Meyer D. C., Stephan T., Müller H., Belger A., Paufler P. (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel". Journal of Alloys and Compounds 372: L15-L19. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005. ISSN 0925-8388. Levin, A. A.; Meyer D. C., Reibold M., Kochmann W., Pätzke N., Paufler P. (2005). "Microstructure of a genuine Damascus Sabre". Crystal Research and Technology 40 (9): 905-916. doi:10.1002/crat.200410456. http://www.crystalresearch.com/crt/ab40/905_a.pdf.^ Reibold, M.; Levin A. A., Kochmann W., Pätzke N., Meyer D. C. (16). "Materials:Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus Sabre". Nature 444: 286. doi:10.1038/444286a.^ a b Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says^ Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword: Carbon nanotech may have given swords of Damascus their edge". Nature (journal). http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061113/full/061113-11.HTML. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.^ a b cd Ahmad Y Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, History of Science and Technology in Islam.^ Nicolle, David (1995). The Janissaries. Osprey. p. 22. Special:Booksources.^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources, History of Science and Technology in Islam^ Ahmad Y Hassan (1987), "Chemical Technology in Arabic Military Treatises", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (New York Academy of Sciences): 153-166 [159]^ Bert S. Hall, in introduction to J. R. Partington, A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, p. xxvii.^ a b Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", Saudi Aramco World, January-February 1995, pp. 20-27^ Deborah Rowe, How Islam has kept us out of the 'Dark Ages', Science and Society, Channel 4, May 2004.^ Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.65^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Lustre Glass and Lazaward And Zaffer Cobalt Oxide In Islamic And Western Lustre Glass And Ceramics, History of Science and Technology in Islam^ Mason, Robert B. (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (Brill Academic Publishers) XII: 5. ISBN 9004103147.^ Standard Terminology Of Ceramic Whiteware and Related Products. ASTM Standard C242.^ Mason, Robert B. (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (Brill Academic Publishers) XII: 1. ISBN 9004103147.^ Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.23^ Islam: Empire of Faith, Part One, after the 50th minute.^ a b Al-Jazari, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya, translated by P. Hill (1973). Springer.^ a b c Donald Routledge Hill (1996), A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times, Routledge, p.224.^ S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50.(cf. References, 1001 Inventions)^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", pp. 766-9, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751-795)^ David A. King (1984), "Architecture and Astronomy: The Ventilators of Medieval Cairo and Their Secrets", Journal of the American Oriental Society 104 (1): 97-133^ a b Gingerich, Owen (April 1986), "Islamic astronomy", Scientific American 254 (10): 74, . Retrieved on 2008-05-18^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive .^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 759, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751-95)^ Hugh N. Kennedy (1985), "From Polis To Madina: Urban Change In Late Antique And Early Islamic Syria", Past & Present (Oxford University Press) 106 (1): 3-27 [10-1]^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 766, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751-95)^ Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 181, University of Texas Press, Special:Booksources^ Peter J. Lu and Paul J. Steinhardt (2007). "Decagonal and Quasi-crystalline Tilings in Medieval Islamic Architecture". Science 315: 1106-1110. doi:10.1126/science.1135491. http://www.physics.Harvard.edu/~plu/publications/Science_315_1106_2007.pdf.^ Supplemental figures [1]^ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992), Islamic Architecture in Cairo, Brill Publishers, p. 6, Special:Booksources04 09626 4^ a b cd Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1): 1-30 [10-1 & 27]^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1): 1-30^ Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, p. 62, BRILL, Special:Booksources^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 783, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751-95)^ a b cd e f Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, p. 65, Brill Publishers, Special:Booksources^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 781, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751-95)^ a b cd e f gh i j kl m n Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)^ Mahdavi, Farid (2003), "Review: Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World by Jonathan M. Bloom", Journal of Interdisciplinary History(MIT Press) 34 (1): 129-30^ The Beginning of the Paper Industry, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. Special:Booksources.^ Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 77(1), p. 1-30 (8).^ A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145-151^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (18ff.)^ The invention of cosmetics. 1001 Inventions.^ a b cd e f gh "Muslim Contribution to Cosmetics". FSTC Limited. 2003-05-20. http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=364. Retrieved on 2008-01-29.^ a b cd Lebling Jr., Robert W. (July-August 2003), "Flight of the Blackbird", Saudi Aramco World: 24-33, http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200304/flight.of.the.blackbird.htm, retrieved on 2008-01-28^ a b Dunlop, D.M. (1975), "Arab Civilization", Librairie du Liban^ a b Sertima, Ivan Van (1992), The Golden Age of the Moor, Transaction Publishers, p. 267, Special:Booksources^ a b Levey, Martin (1973), "Early Arabic Pharmacology", E.J. Brill: Leiden, Special:Booksources.^ Al-Kindi, FSTC^ How Islam invented a bright new world, The Herald, 25/10/2007.^ a b cd Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, Special:Booksources^ a b Makdisi, George (April-June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society109 (2): 175-182 [175-77]^ a b cd Alatas, Syed Farid, "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian-Muslim Dialogue", Current Sociology 54 (1): 112-32^ The Guinness Book Of Records, 1998, p. 242, Special:Booksources^ John Bagot Glubb:By Mamun's time medical schools were extremely active in Baghdad. The first free public hospital was opened in Baghdad during the caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to practice. The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia. (cf. Quotations on Islamic Civilization) ^ Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 99, Special:Booksources^ Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 100, Special:Booksources^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring, 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law 26 (2 - Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24-25, 1977): 187-198 [196-8]^ a b Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", North Carolina Law Review 77 (5): 1635-1739^ Toby E. Huff (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West, Cambridge University Press, pp. 77-8^ a b Micheau, Francoise, "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East", pp. 992-3 , in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 985-1007)^ a b (Kennedy 1962)^ Micheau, Francoise, "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East", pp. 988-991 in Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, Special:Booksources^ (Gaudiosi 1988)^ (Gaudiosi 1988, pp. 1237-40)^ (Gaudiosi 1988, p. 1246)^ Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2004 (3), pp. 3-9 [8].^ Sir John Bagot Glubb (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor (1999), Quotations on Islamic Civilization)^ Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8].^ Micheau, Francoise, "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East", pp. 991-2 , in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985-1007)^ David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).^ Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97-111 [100-1]^ Imamuddin, S. M. (1981), Muslim Spain 711-1492 A.D., Brill Publishers, p. 166, Special:Booksources^ Ancient Discoveries, Episode 12: Machines of the East, History Channel, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwGfw1YW9Js, retrieved on 2008-09-07^ Georges Ifrah (2001), The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quatum Computer, p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See [2])^ a b c Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots, History Channel, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8, retrieved on 2008-09-06^ Segment gear, TheFreeDictionary.com^ The Automata of Al-Jazari. The Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul.^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 751-795 [792]. Routledge, London and New York.^ Bosworth, C. E. (Autumn 1981), "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?", Journal of Semitic StudiesXXVl (i)^ ""Origins of the Fountain Pen"". Muslimheritage.com. http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=365. Retrieved on September 18 2007.^ Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 181, University of Texas Press, Special:Booksources.^ a b c Donald Routledge Hill, "Engineering", p. 776, in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, pp. 751-795, Routledge, London and New York^ Richard W. Bulliet (1987), "Medieval Arabic Tarsh: A Forgotten Chapter in the History of Printing", Journal of the American Oriental Society 107 (3), p. 427-438.^ F. L. Lewis (1992), Applied Optimal Control and Estimation, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.^ a b c Otto Mayr (1970). The Origins of Feedback Control, MIT Press.^ Ancient Discoveries, Episode 12: Machines of the East, History Channel, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6gdknoXww8, retrieved on 2008-09-06^ Derek de Solla Price (1975). "The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari", Technology and Culture 16 (1), p. 81.^ The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din (2004), Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.^ a b Rosheim, Mark E. (1994), Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, Wiley-IEEE, p. 9, Special:Booksources^ Rosheim, Mark E. (1994), Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, Wiley-IEEE, p. 36, Special:Booksources^ a b Arslan Terzioglu (2007), The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History, in H. C. Guzel (ed.), The Turks, pp. 804-10^ Ismail b. Ali Ebu'l Feda history, Weltgeschichte, hrsg. von Fleischer and Reiske 1789-94, 1831.^ A. Marigny (1760). Histoire de Arabes. Paris, Bd. 3, S.206.^ a b Teun Koetsier (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", Mechanism and Machine theory 36, p. 590-591.^ A 13th Century Programmable Robot. University of Sheffield.^ Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967), "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments", Music Educators Journal 54 (2): 45-49^ Rosheim, Mark E. (1994), Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, Wiley-IEEE, pp. 9-10, Special:Booksources^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Al-Jazari and the History of the Water Clock^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 771, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751-95)^ Ahmad Y Hassan, The Origin of the Suction Pump - Al-Jazari 1206 A.D., History of Science and Technology in Islam^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Flywheel Effect for a Saqiya, History of Science and Technology in Islam.^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times, Routledge], p. 205, Special:Booksources^ Prof. Nil Sari (Istanbul University, Cerrahpasha Medical School) (06 June, 2007). "Hindiba: A Drug for Cancer Treatment in Muslim Heritage". FSTC Limited. http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=707.^ US patent 5663196 Methods for treating neoplastic disorders^ The Valuable Contribution of al-Razi (Rhazes) to the History of Pharmacy, FSTC^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67(5): 447-450 [448-9]^ Jacquart, Danielle, "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances", European Review16 (2): 219-227 [219 & 222-5^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67(5): 447-450 [448]^ David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2)^ Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", Health Information and Libraries Journal 20, p. 34-44 [36].^ Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 16 (1), p. 13-21 [19].^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67(5), p. 447-450 [449].^ Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), p. 530-540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press.^ Phyllis A. Balch, Robert Rister (2002), Prescription for Herbal Healing: An Easy-To-Use A-Z Reference to Hundreds of Common Disorders and Their Heral Remedies, Avery, Special:Booksources^ Fahd, Toufic, "Botany and agriculture", pp. 815 , in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 813-52)^ Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", OISE Papers, in STSE Education, Vol. 3^ Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia^ Philip K. Hitti (cf. Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992), Miracle of Islamic Science, Appendix B, Knowledge House Publishers. Special:Booksources)^ Dr. Z. Idrisi, PhD (2005), The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe, Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization, United Kingdom^ M. 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"Needles & Pins", AlShindagah 68, January-February 2006.^ Prof. Dr. Mostafa Shehata, "The Ear, Nose and Throat in Islamic Medicine", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2003 (1): 2-5 [4].^ Dr. Salah Zaimeche PhD (University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology), 1000 years of missing Astronomy, FSTC.^ a b David A. King, "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)", Islam & Science, June 2004.^ (King 1983, pp. 547-548)^ G. R. Tibbetts (1973), "Comparisons between Arab and Chinese Navigational Techniques", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 36 (1), p. 97-108 [105-106].^ Robert Hannah (1997). "The Mapping of the Heavens by Peter Whitfield", Imago Mundi 49, p. 161-162.^ Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.^ (McGrail 2004, pp. 85-6)^ a b c (McGrail 2004, p. 316)^ Raju, C. K. (2007), Cultural Foundations of Mathematics: The Nature of Mathematical Proof and Transmission of the Calculus From India to Europe in the 16th CE, pp. 240-59, Special:Booksources, http://ckraju.net/IndianCalculus/Education/Kamal_pages.pdf, retrieved on 2008-09-10^ a b (McGrail 2004, p. 393)^ a b Lawrence V. Mott, p.93^ Lawrence V. Mott, p.92f.^ Poore, Daniel. A History of Early Flight. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1952.^ Smithsonian Institution. Manned Flight. Pamphlet 1990.^ David W. Tschanz, Flights of Fancy on Manmade Wings, IslamOnline.net.^ Parachutes, Principles of Aeronautics, Franklin Institute.^ "'Abbas Ibn Firnas". John H. Lienhard. The Engines of Our Ingenuity (NPR, KUHF-FM Houston). 2004. Transcript.^ a b Dr. Emily Winterburn (National Maritime Museum), Using an Astrolabe, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2005.^ M. T. Houtsma and E. van Donzel (1993), E. J. 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Kennedy (1947), "Al-Kashi's Plate of Conjunctions", Isis 38 (1-2), p. 56-59 [56].^ a b E. S. Kennedy (1950), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Manateq I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude", Isis 41(2), p. 180-183.^ E. S. Kennedy (1952), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Maneteq II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets", Isis 43 (1), p. 42-50.^ E. S. Kennedy (1951), "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes", Journal of the American Oriental Society 71 (1), p. 13-21.^ Distillation, Hutchinson Encyclopedia, 2007.^ Marshall Clagett (1961). The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages, p. 64. University of Wisconsin Press.^ M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, p. 639) (cf. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)^ a b Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. VII, p. 346.^ Pitman, Vicki (2004), Aromatherapy: A Practical Approach, Nelson Thornes, p. xi, Special:Booksources^ Myers, Richard (2003), The Basics of Chemistry, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 14, Special:Booksources^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191.^ M. S. Asimov, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1999), The Age of Achievement: Vol 4, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 228, Special:Booksources^ a b c David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., Astronomy before the telescope, p. 167-168. British Museum Press. Special:Booksources.^ Elly Dekker (1995), "An unrecorded medieval astrolabe quadrant from c. 1300", Annals of Science 52 (1), p. 1-47 [6].^ David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", Journal for the History of Astronomy33, p. 237-255 [237-238].^ Roberto Moreno, Koenraad Van Cleempoel, David King (2002). "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe", Annals of Science 59 (4), p. 331-362 [333].^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive .^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.^ Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 1-19)^ Sabra, A. I.; Hogendijk, J. P. (2003), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 85-118, Special:Booksources^ Hatfield, Gary (1996), "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?", in Ragep, F. J.; Ragep, Sally P.; Livesey, Steven John, Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma, Brill Publishers, p. 500, Special:Booksources^ R. L. Verma (1969), Al-Hazen: father of modern optics^ Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna Martich (April 1998), "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Microneurosurgery", Neurosurgery 42 (4): 899-907^ O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 6, p. 4^ Richard Powers (University of Illinois), Best Idea; Eyes Wide OpenNew York Times, April 18, 1999.^ David A. King (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis 74 (4), p. 531-555 [545-546].^ Emilie Savage-Smith (1988), "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine", Isis 79 (2): 246-266 [263].^ King, David A., "Astronomy and Islamic society", pp. 163-8 , in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 128-184)^ David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", Journal for the History of Astronomy33, p. 237-255 [238-239].^ a b c Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 794, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, p. 751-95)^ Mills, A. A. (1988), "The mercury clock of the Libros del Saber", Annals of Science 45 (4): 329-344 [332]^ Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974) The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill, Dordrecht / D. Reidel, part II.^ David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", p. 168-169.^ David A. King (December 2003). "14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis", Centaurus 45(1-4), p. 204-226.^ "History of the sundial". National Maritime Museum. http://www.nmm.ac.UK/server/show/conWebDoc.353. Retrieved on 2008-07-02.^ Jones, Lawrence (December 2005), "The Sundial And Geometry", North American Sundial Society 12 (4)^ The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.^ Fielding H. Garrison, History of Medicine^ Professor Salim T. S. Al-Hassani (2006). 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World. FSTC. Special:Booksources.^ Where the heart is, 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World, 2006.^ Laura Shannon (2006). 1001 Inventions At Museum Of Science And Industry Manchester.^ Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi (April 1992), "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions", Cryptologia 16(2): 97-126^ (Khaleefa 1999)^ (Steffens 2006), Chapter 5^ Skinner, Stephen (1980). Terrestrial Astrology: Divination by Geomancy. London: Routeledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. pp.14-5^ Ismail al-Faruqi and Lois Lamya al-Faruqi (1986), The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p. 328, New York^ "fustian". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989.^ Donald King in: Jonathan Alexander & Paul Binski (eds), Age of Chivalry, Art in Plantagenet England, 1200-1400, p.157, Royal Academy/Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1987^ David J Roxburgh (2000), Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, p. 21, Brill Publishers, Special:Booksources.^ Josef W. Meri (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, p. 75, Taylor and Francis, Special:Booksources.^ David A. King (1999), World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science, p. 17, Brill Publishers, Special:Booksources.^ Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:"According to the majority of the historians Ibn al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable." ^ (Omar 1977)^ Rüdiger Thiele (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 15: 329-31, Cambridge University Press^ (Steffens 2006)^ a b c Farmer, Henry George (1988), Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence, Ayer Publishing, 137, Special:Booksources^ Summerfield, Maurice J. (2003). The Classical Guitar, It's Evolution, Players and Personalities since 1800(5th ed.) Blaydon on Tyne: Ashley Mark Publishing. Special:Booksources.^ [A Look At The History Of The Guitar http://www.thejazzfestival.net/showarticle?id=109580]^ Baines, Anthony (May 1976), "Reviewed work(s): Die Drehleier, ihr Bau und ihre Geschichte by Marianne Bröcker", The Galpin Society Journal 29: 140-141 [140]^ Sarton, George (1932), "Reviewed work(s): The Organ of the Ancients by Henry George Farmer", Isis 17(1): 278-282 [281]^ Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967), "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments", Music Educators Journal 54 (2): 45-49^ Bridge, Robert. "Timpani Construction paper" (PDF). http://myhome.sunyocc.edu/~bridger/morepages/subpages/timpconstpaper.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-02-18.^ Arkenberg, Rebecca (October 2002). "Renaissance Violins". http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renv/hd_renv.htm. Retrieved on 2006-09-22.[edit] ReferencesGaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review136 (4): 1231-1261Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.), Cavendish Publishing, Special:BooksourcesKennedy, Edward S. (1962), "Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili", Isis 53 (2): 237-239Khaleefa, Omar (1999), "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2)McGrail, Sean (2004), Boats of the World, Oxford University Press, Special:BooksourcesMott, Lawrence V. (May 1991), The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1337: A Technological Tale, Thesis, Texas A&M UniversityOmar, Saleh Beshara (1977), Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science, Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, Special:BooksourcesRashed, Roshdi & Régis Morelon (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Routledge, Special:BooksourcesSteffens, Bradley (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, Special:BooksourcesRetrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventions_of_the_Islamic_Golden_Age"ViewsArticleDiscussionEdit this pageHistoryPersonal toolsLog in / create accountNavigationMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleSearchInteractionAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact WikipediaDonate to WikipediaHelpToolboxWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPrintable versionPermanent linkCite this pageLanguagesالعربيةفارسیBahasa Melayuاردو中文This page was last modified on 4 July 2009 at 00:46.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. 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Who are some unrecognized inventors?

AVitaly Mikhaylovich Abalakov, (1906-1986), Russia - camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread) gearless ice climbing anchor.Hovannes Adamian, (1879-1932), Armenia/Russia - tricolor principle of the color televisionRobert Adler, (1913-2007), Austria/United States - wireless remote controlTurhan Alçelik (c. 2006), Turkey - non-glaring headlampRostislav Alexeyev, (1916-1980) , Russia - Ekranoplan.Mary Anderson, (1866-1953), United States - windshield wiper bladeNicolas Appert, (1749-1841), France - canning (airtight food preservation)Archimedes, (c. 287-212 BC), Greece - Archimedes' screwAmi Argand, (1750-1803), France - Argand lampEdwin H. Armstrong,(1890-1954), U.S. - FM radioWilliam George Armstrong, (1810-1900), UK - hydraulic craneNeil Arnott, (1788-1874), UK - waterbedLev Artsimovich, (1909-1973), Russia - TokamakAl-Ashraf, (fl. 1282-1296), Yemen - dry compassJoseph Aspdin, (1788-1855), England - Portland cementJohn Vincent Atanasoff, (1903-1995), United States - modern programmable computer[edit] BCharles Babbage, (1791-1871), UK - analytical engine (semi-automatic computer)Roger Bacon, (1214-1292), England - magnifying glassLeo Baekeland, (1863-1944), Belgian-American - Velox photographic paper and BakeliteRalph H. Baer, (1922-), German born American - video game consoleAbd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, (1162-1231), Iraq/Egypt - ventilatorJohn Logie Baird, (1888-1946), Scotland - an electromechanical televisionIbn al-Baitar, (d. 1248), Islamic Spain - three hundred drugs and foods, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, Hindiba, pharmacopoeiaAbi Bakr of Isfahan, (c. 1235), Persia - mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar analog computerDonat Banki, (1859-1922), Hungary - inventor of the carburetorJohn Bardeen, (1908-1991), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistorAnthony R. Barringer Canadian - American - INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic systemEarl W. Bascom, (1906-1995), Canada and United States - side-delivery rodeo chute, hornless rodeo saddle, rodeo bareback rigging, rodeo chapsIbn Bassal, (fl. 1038-1075), Islamic Spain - flywheel, flywheel-driven noria, flywheel-driven saqiya chain pumpMuhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius), (853-929), Syria/Turkey - observation tubeEugen Baumann, (1846-1896), Germany - PVCTrevor Baylis, (1937-), UK - a wind-up radioFrancis Beaufort, (1774-1857), France - Beaufort scaleArnold O. Beckman, (1900-2004), U.S. - pH meterUlugh Beg, 1394-1449, |Persia - Fakhri sextant, mural sextantAlexander Graham Bell, (1847-1922), Canada, Scotland, and U.S. - telephoneKarl Benz, (1844-1929), Germany - the petrol-powered automobileEmile Berliner, (1851-1929), Germany and U.S. - the disc record gramophoneTim Berners-Lee, (1955-), UK - with Robert Cailliau, the World Wide WebAbu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, (955-996), Egypt - airmail, homing pigeonBi Sheng (Chinese: 畢昇), (ca. 990-1051), China - clay movable type printingLaszlo Biro, (1899-1985), Hungary - modern ballpoint penClarence Birdseye, (1886-1956), U.S. - frozen food processAbū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, (973-1048), Persia - mechanical geared lunisolar calendar analog computer, fixed-wired knowledge processing machine, conical measure, laboratory flask, Orthographical astrolabe, hodometer, pycnometerJ. Stuart Blackton, (1875-1941), U.S. - stop-motion filmOtto Blathy (1860-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of the transformer, wattmeter, alternating current (AC) and turbogeneratorKatharine B. Blodgett, (1898-1979), UK - nonreflective glassNils Bohlin, (1920-2002), Sweden - the three-point seat beltJoseph-Armand Bombardier, (1907-1964), Canada - snowmobileJagdish Chandra Bose, (1858 -1937), India - CrescographRobert W. Bower, (1936-), U.S. - self-aligned-gate MOSFETSeth Boyden, (1788-1870), U.S. - nail-making machineWalter Houser Brattain, (1902-1987), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistorLouis Braille, (1809-1852), France - the Braille writing systemKarl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918), Germany - cathode-ray tube oscilloscopeHarry Brearley, (1871-1948), UK - stainless steelSergey Brin, (1973-), Russia/U.S. - with Larry Page invented Google web search engineRachel Fuller Brown, (1898-1980), U.S., Nystatin, the world's first antifungal antibioticJohn Moses Browning, (1855-1926), U.S. - automatic handgunMaria Christina Bruhn, (1732-1802)Edwin Beard Budding, (1795-1846), UK - lawnmowerCorliss Orville Burandt, U.S. - Variable valve timing[edit] CRobert Cailliau, (1947 -), Belgium - with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide WebC`ai Lun, 蔡倫 (50 AD - 121), China - paperMarvin Camras, (1916 - 1995), U.S. - magnetic recordingChester Carlson, (1906 - 1968), U.S. - XerographyWallace Carothers, (1896 - 1937), U.S. - NylonHezarfen Ahmet Celebi, (fl. 1630-1632), long-distance flight, artificial wingsLagari Hasan Çelebi, (fl. 1633-1640), Turkey - manned rocket, artificially-powered aircraft, rocket aircraftJoseph Constantine Carpue, (1764 - 1846), France - rhinoplastic surgeryGeorge Cayley, (1773 - 1857), (UK) - glider, tension-spoke wheels, Caterpillar trackRoxey Ann Caplin, (1793 - 1888) - CorsetsAdriano Cavalcanti, (1971 -), Australia - hardware architecture for nanorobotsDennis Charter, [1] [2] (1952 -), Australia - secure electronic payment system for internet PaySafeAdrian Chernoff, (1971 -), U.S. - GM Autonomy, GM Hy-wire, Rubber BanditsEvgeniy Chertovsky, Russia - Pressure suitNiels Christensen (1865 - 1952), U.S. - O-ringSamuel Hunter Christie, (1784 - 1865), UK - Wheatstone bridgeJuan de la Cierva, (1895 - 1936), Spain - the autogyroAlexandru Ciurcu, (1854 - 1922), Romania - Reaction engineGeorges Claude, (1870 - 1960), France - neon lampHenri Coandă, (1886 - 1972), Romania - Jet engineJosephine Cochrane, (1839 - 1913), U.S. - dishwasherChristopher Cockerell, (1910 - 1999), UK - HovercraftAeneas Coffey, (1780 - 1852), Ireland - heat exchanger, Coffey stillSamuel Colt, (1814 - 1862), U.S. - RevolverGeorge Constantinescu, (1881 - 1965), Romania - Interrupter gearLloyd Groff Copeman, (1865 - 1956), U.S. - Electric stoveCornelis Corneliszoon, (1550 - 1607), The Netherlands - sawmillJacques Cousteau, (1910 - 1997), France - co-inventor of the aqualung and the Nikonos underwater cameraThomas Crapper, (1836 - 1910), England - plumber.Bartolomeo Cristofori, (1655 - 1731), Italy - pianoJános Csonka, (1852 - 1939), Hungary - co-inventor of carburetorNicolas-Joseph Cugnot, (1725 - 1804), France - first steam-powered road vehicleWilliam Cumberland Cruikshank, (1745 - 1800), UK - chlorinated waterWilliam Cullen, (1710 - 1790), UK - first artificial refrigeratorGlenn Curtiss, (1878 - 1930), U.S. - ailerons[edit] DGustaf Dalén, (1869-1937), Sweden - AGA cooker; Dalén light; AgamassanSalvino D'Armate, (?-?), Italy - credited for inventing eyeglasses in 1284Jacob Davis, (1868-1908), U.S. - riveted jeansEdmund Davy, (1785-1857), Ireland - acetyleneHumphry Davy, (1778-1829), UK - Davy miners lampJoseph Day, (1855-1946), UK - the crankcase-compression two-stroke engineLee DeForest, (1873-1961), U.S. - triodeMiksa Deri (1854-1938), Hungary - co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformerJames Dewar, (1842-1923), UK - Thermos flaskWilliam Kennedy Laurie Dickson, (1860-1935), UK - motion picture cameraPhilip Diehl, (1847-1913), U.S. - Ceiling fan, electric sewing machineRudolf Diesel, (1858-1913), Germany - Diesel engineTaqi al-Din, (1526-1585), Syria/Egypt/Turkey - steam turbine, smoke jack, six-cylinder 'Monobloc' suction pump, mechanical alarm clock, spring-powered pocket watch measured in minutes, spring-powered astronomical clock measured in minutes and seconds, framed sextantAl-Dinawari, (828-896), Persia - more than a hundred plant drugsWilliam H. Dobelle, (1943-2004), United States - first functioning artificial eyeBryan Donkin, (1768-1855), UK - print industry composition rollerHub van Doorne, (1900-1979), Netherlands, Variomatic continuously variable transmissionAnastase Dragomir, (1896-1966), Romania - Ejection seatKarl Drais, (1785-1851), Germany - dandy horse (Draisine)Cornelius Drebbel, (1572-1633), The Netherlands - first navigable submarineRichard Drew, (1899-1980), U.S. - Masking tapeJohn Boyd Dunlop, (1840-1921) UK - first practical pneumatic tyreJames Dyson, (1947- ) UK - Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, incorporating the principles of cyclonic separation.[edit] EGeorge Eastman, (1854-1932), U.S. - roll filmThomas Edison, (1847-1931), U.S. - phonograph, commercially practical light bulb, motion picture projector, stock ticker, etcWillem Einthoven, (1860-1927), The Netherlands - the electrocardiogramRune Elmqvist, (1857-1924), Sweden - implantable pacemakerDouglas Engelbart, (1925-), U.S. - the computer mouse [3]John Ericsson, (1803-1889), Sweden - the two screw-propellerLars Magnus Ericsson, (1846-1926), Sweden - the handheld micro telephoneOle Evinrude, (1877-1934), Norway - outboard motor[edit] FSamuel Face, (1923-2001), U.S. - concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning SwitchMichael Faraday, (1791-1867), England - electric transformerJohann Maria Farina, (1685-1766), Germany; Eau de ColognePhilo Farnsworth, (1906-1971), U.S. - electronic televisionMuhammad al-Fazari, (d. 796/806), Iraq or Persia - brass astrolabeSvyatoslav Fyodorov, (1927-2000), Russia - radial keratotomyJames Fergason, (1934-), U.S. - improved liquid crystal displayEnrico Fermi, (1901-1954), Italy - nuclear reactorHumberto Fernández Morán, (1924-1999), Venezuela - Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtomeReginald Fessenden, (1866-1932), Canada - two-way radioAdolf Eugen Fick, (1829-1901), Germany - contact lensFatima al-Fihri, (c. 859), Tunisia/Morocco - universityAbbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman), (810-887), Islamic Spain - eye glasses, parachute, hang glider, artificial wings, controlled flight, watch, fused quartz and silica glass, artificial thunder and lightning, metronomeArtur Fischer, (1919-) Germany - fasteners including fischertechnik.Gerhard Fischer, Germany/U.S. - hand-held metal detectorAlexander Fleming, (1881-1955), Scotland - penicillinJohn Ambrose Fleming, (1848-1945), England - vacuum diodeSandford Fleming, (1827-1915), Canada - Universal Standard TimeTommy Flowers, (1905-1998), England - Colossus an early electronic computer.Jean Bernard Léon Foucault, (1819-1868), France - Foucault pendulum, gyroscope, eddy currentBenoît Fourneyron, (1802-1867), France - water turbineJohn Fowler, (1826-1864), England - steam-driven ploughing engineBenjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), U.S. - the pointed lightning rod conductor, bifocal glasses, the Franklin stove, the glass harmonicaAugustin-Jean Fresnel, (1788-1827), France - Fresnel lensWilliam Friese-Greene, (1855-1921), England - cinematographyBuckminster Fuller, (1895-1983), U.S. - geodesic dome[edit] GDennis Gabor, (1900-1979), Hungary - holographyBoris Borisovich Galitzine, (1862-1916), Russia - Electromagnetic seismograph.Elmer R. Gates, (1859-1923), USA - foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks")Richard J. Gatling, (1818-1903), U.S. - wheat drill, first successful machine gunHans Wilhelm Geiger, (1882-1945), Germany - Geiger counterHenri Giffard, (1825-1882), France - powered airship, injectorHeinrich Göbel, (1818-1893), Germany - first functional incandescent lampLeonid Gobyato, (1875-1915), Russia - first modern man-portable mortarRobert Goddard, (1882-1945), U.S. - liquid fuel rocketPeter Carl Goldmark, (1906-1977), Hungary - vinyl record (LP), CBS color televisionCharles Goodyear, (1800-1860), U.S. - vulcanization of rubberGordon Gould, (1920-2005), U.S. - co-inventor of laserRichard Hall Gower, (1768-1833), England - ship's hull and riggingBette Nesmith Graham, (1924-1980), U.S. - Liquid PaperJames Henry Greathead, (1844-1896), South Africa - tunnel boring machine, tunnelling shield techniqueChester Greenwood, (1858-1937), U.S. - thermal earmuffsJames Gregory, (1638-1675), Scotland - Gregorian telescopeWilliam Robert Grove, (1811-1896), Wales - fuel cellOtto von Guericke, (1602-1686), Germany - vacuum pump, manometer, dasymeterHakan Gürsu, (c. 2007), Turkey - VolitanJohann Gutenberg, (c. 1390s-1468), Germany - movable type printing pressSamuel Guthrie, (1782-1848), U.S. - discovered chloroform[edit] HJohn Hadley, (1682-1744), England - OctantWaldemar Haffkine, (1860-1930), Russia/Switzerland - first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccinesTracy Hall, (1919-2008 ), U.S. - synthetic diamondChristopher Hansteen, (1783-1873), Norway - discovery of terrestrial magnetismJames Hargreaves, (1720-1778), England - spinning jennyJohn Harrison, (1693-1776), England - marine chronometerVictor Hasselblad, (1906-1978), Sweden - invented the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex cameraIbn al-Haytham (Alhazen), (965-1039), Iraq - camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass, concave and convex mirrors, spherical mirrorRobert A. Heinlein, (1907-1988), U.S. - waterbedJozef Karol Hell, (1713-1789), Slovakia - the water pillarRudolf Hell, (1901-2002), Germany - the HellschreiberJoseph Henry, (1797-1878), Scotland/U.S. - electromagnetic relayHeron, (c. 10-70), Roman Egypt - aeolipileHeinrich Hertz, (1857-1894), Germany - radio telegraphy, electromagnetic radiationGeorge de Hevesy, (1885-1966), Hungary - radioactive tracerRowland Hill, (1795-1879), UK - postage stampFelix Hoffmann (Bayer), (1868-1949), Germany - AspirinHerman Hollerith, (1860-1929), U.S. - recording data on a machine readable medium, tabulator, punched cardsNick Holonyak, (1928- ), U.S. - LED (Light Emitting Diode)Robert Hooke, (1635-1703), England - balance wheel, iris diaphragmErna Schneider Hoover, (1926-), U.S. - computerized telephone switching systemFrank Hornby, (1863-1936), England - invented MeccanoCoenraad Johannes van Houten, (1801-1887), Netherlands - cocoa powder, cacao butter, chocolate milkElias Howe, (1819-1867), U.S. - sewing machineMuhammad Husayn, (fl. 1600s), Persia - cartographic Qibla indicator with sundial and compassChristiaan Huygens, (1629-1695), Netherlands - pendulum clockJohn Wesley Hyatt, (1837-1920), U.S. - celluloid manufacturing[edit] IIbn Yunus, (950-1009), Egypt - pendulumSumio Iijima, (1939- ), Japan - nanotubesGavriil Ilizarov, (1921-1992), Russia - Ilizarov apparatus and distraction osteogenesis.János Irinyi, (1817-1895), Hungary - noiseless match[edit] JJabir ibn Aflah (Geber), (c. 1100-1150), Islamic Spain - portable celestial globeJabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), (c. 721-815), Yemen/Persia - pure distillation, calcination, crystallization, filtration, liquefaction, purification, alembic, still, retort, mineral acids, nitric and sulfuric acids, uric and hydrochloric acids, aqua regia, alum, alkali, borax, pure sal ammoniac, lead carbonatic, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, pure mercury and sulfur, plated mail, artificial pearl and gemstone, lusterwareKarl Jatho, (1873-1933), Germany - aeroplaneAl-Jazari, (1136-1206), Iraq - crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pump, crank-driven screw and screwpump, elephant clock, weight-driven clock, weight-driven pump, reciprocating piston suction pump, geared and hydropowered water supply system, programmable humanoid robots, robotics, hand washing automata, flush mechanism, lamination, static balancing, paper model, sand casting, molding sand, intermittency, linkageIbn Al-Jazzar (Algizar), (c. 898-980), Tunisia - sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction treatment drugsGyörgy Jendrassik, (1898-1954), Hungary - turbopropCarl Edvard Johansson, (1864-1943), Sweden - Gauge blocksJohan Petter Johansson, (1853-1943), Sweden - the pipe wrench and the modern adjustable spannerNancy Johnson, U.S. - American version of the hand cranked ice cream machine in (1843)Scott A. Jones, (1960-), U.S. - created one of the most successful versions of voicemail as well as ChaCha Search, a human-assisted internet search engine.Whitcomb Judson, (1836-1909), U.S. - zipper[edit] KMikhail Kalashnikov, (1919-), Russia - AK-47 and AK-74 assault riflesDean Kamen, (1951-), U.S. - Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility DeviceHeike Kamerlingh Onnes, (1853-1926), Netherlands - liquify heliumJamshīd al-Kāshī, (c. 1380-1429), Persia - plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computerAbu 'Abdullah Muhammad ibn Naser ibn Saghir ibn Khalid al-Kaysarani, (c. 1154), Syria - striking clock, clock towerJohn Harvey Kellogg, (1852-1943), cornflake breakfastsJohn George Kemeny, (1926-1992), Hungary - co-inventor of BASICAlexander Kemurdzhian, (1921-2003), Russia - first space exploration rover (Lunokhod)Kerim Kerimov, (1917-2003), Azerbaijan and Russia - human spaceflight, space dock, space stationCharles F. Kettering, (1876-1958), U.S. - invented automobile self-starter ignition, Freon ethyl gasoline and moreKhalid, (fl. 800s), Ethiopia - coffeeFazlur Khan, (1929-1982), Bangladesh - structural systems for high-rise skyscrapersAl-Khazini, (fl. 1115-1130), Persia - hydrostatic balanceAbu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, (c. 940-1000), Persia - astronomical sextantMuhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Algoritmi), (c. 780-850), Persia - modern algebra, mural instrument, quadrant, horary quadrant, sine quadrant, Quadrans Vetus, shadow squareJack Kilby, (1923-2005), U.S. - patented the first integrated circuitAl-Kindi (Alkindus), (801-873), Iraq/Yemen - ethanol, pure distilled alcohol, cryptanalysis, frequency analysisFritz Klatte, (1880-1934), Germany - vinyl chloride, forerunner to polyvinyl chlorideMargaret E. Knight, (1838-1914), U.S. - machine that completely constructs box-bottom brown paper bagsIvan Knunyants, (1906-1990), Armenia/Russia - invented Nylon-6Robert Koch, (1843-1910), Germany - method for culturing bacteria on solid mediaWillem Johan Kolff, (1911-2009), Netherlands - artificial kidney hemodialysis machineRudolf Kompfner, (1909-1977), U.S. - Traveling-wave tubeSergey Korolyov, (1907-1966), Ukraine/Russia - invented R-7 rocket family, designed Sputniks (including first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite), supervised Vostok program (including first human spaceflight)Gleb Kotelnikov, (1872-1944), Russia - knapsack parachuteIvan Kulibin, (1735-1818), Russia - Elevator using screw mechanisms. Also invented an automobile that featured a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearing.[1]Igor Kurchatov, (1903-1960), Russia - first nuclear power plant, first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface shipsRaymond Kurzweil, (1948-), Optical character recognition; flatbed scannerStephanie Kwolek, (1923-), U.S. - KevlarJohn Howard Kyan (1774-1850), Ireland - The process of Kyanization used for wood preservation[edit] LRené Laënnec, (1781-1826), France - stethoscopeLala Balhumal Lahuri, (c. 1842), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe, lost-wax castingGeorges Lakhovsky, (1869-1942), Russia - Multiple Wave Oscillator.Hedy Lamarr, (1913-2000), Austria and U.S. - Spread spectrum radioEdwin H. Land, (1909-1991), U.S. - Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land CameraSamuel P. Langley, (1834-1906), U.S. - bolometerIrving Langmuir, (1851-1957), U.S. - gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen weldingLewis Latimer, (1848-1928), - worked with Thomas Edison and patented an improved lightbulb manufacturing processGustav de Laval, (1845-1913), Sweden - invented the milk separator and the milking machineJohn Bennet Lawes, (1814-1900), England - superphosphate or chemical fertilizerSergei Vasiljevich Lebedev, (1874-1934), Russia - synthetic rubberTim Berners-Lee, (1955- ) England - World Wide WebAntoni van Leeuwenhoek, (1632-1723), Netherlands - development of the microscopeJean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir, (1822-1900), Belgium - internal combustion engine, motorboatR. G. LeTourneau, (1888-1969), U.S.- electric wheel, motor scraper, mobile oil drilling platform, bulldozer, cable control unit for scrapersWillard Frank Libby, (1908-1980), U.S. - radiocarbon datingJustus von Liebig, (1803-1873), Germany - nitrogen-based fertilizerOtto Lilienthal, (1848-1896), Germany - hang gliderFrans Wilhelm Lindqvist, (1862-1931), Sweden - Kerosene stove operated by compressed airHans Lippershey, (1570-1619), Netherlands - telescopeWilliam Howard Livens, (1889-1964), England - chemical warfare - Livens Projector.Alexander Lodygin, (1847-1923), Russia - Electrical filament, incandescent light bulb with tungsten filament.Oleg Losev, (1903-1942), Russia - Light-emitting diode.Archibald Low, (1882-1956), Britain - Pioneer of radio guidance systemsAuguste and Louis Lumière, France - CinématographeIgnacy Łukasiewicz, (1822-1882), Poland - modern kerosene lampGiovanni Luppis, (1813-1875), Austrian Empire (ethnical Italian) - self-propelled torpedoAli Kashmiri ibn Luqman, (fl. 1589-1590), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe, lost-wax casting[edit] MMa Jun, (c. 200-265), China - South Pointing Chariot (see differential gear), mechanical puppet theater, chain pumps, improved silk loomsCharles Macintosh, (1766-1843), Scotland - waterproof raincoat, life vestSake Dean Mahomet, (c. 1759), India - shampooDmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov, (1896-1964), Russia - Maksutov telescopeAl-Ma'mun, (786-833), Iraq - singing bird automata, terrestrial globeGeorge William Manby, (1765-1854), England - Fire extinguisherGuglielmo Marconi, (1874-1937), Italy - radio telegraphyJohn Landis Mason, (1826-1902), U.S. - Mason jarsHenry Maudslay, (1771-1831), England - screw-cutting lathe, bench micrometerHiram Maxim, (1840-1916), USA born, England - First self-powered machine gunJames Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and Thomas Sutton Scotland - colour photographyAmmar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, (9th century), Iraq - syringe, hypodermic needle, cataract extraction, injection, suctionJohn McAdam, (1756-1836), Scotland - improved "macadam" road surfaceElijah McCoy, (1843-1929), Canada - Displacement lubricatorHippolyte Mège-Mouriés, (1817-1880), France - margarineDmitri Mendeleev, (1834-1907), Russia - Periodic table, pyrocollodion.Antonio Meucci, (1808-1889), Italy - telephone (prototype)Edouard Michelin, (1859-1940), France - pneumatic tyreAnthony Michell, (1870 - 1959), Australia - tilting pad thrust bearing, crankless enginePavel Molchanov, (1893-1941), Russia - Radiosonde.Jules Montenier, (c. 1910), U.S. - modern anti-perspirant deodorantMontgolfier brothers, (1740-1810) and (1745-1799), France - hot-air balloonJohn J. Montgomery, (1858-1911), U.S. - heavier-than-air glidersNarcis Monturiol i Estarriol, (1819-1885), Spain - steam powered submarineRobert Moog, (1934-2005), U.S. - the Moog synthesizerSamuel Morey, (1762-1843), U.S. - internal combustion engineGarrett A. Morgan, (1877-1963), U.S. - inventor of the gas mask, and traffic signal.Samuel Morse, (1791-1872), U.S. - telegraphIbn Khalaf al-Muradi, (fl. 1000s), Islamic Spain - geared mechanical clock, segmental gear, epicyclic gearingWilliam Murdoch, (1754-1839), Scotland - Gas lightingJozef Murgas, (1864-1929), Slovakia - inventor of the wireless telegraph (forerunner of the radio)Al-Muqaddasi, (c. 946-1000), Palestine - restaurantBanū Mūsā brothers, Muhammad (c. 800-873), Ahmad (803-873), Al-Hasan (810-873), Iraq - valve, float valve, feedback controller, automatic control, float chamber, mechanical trick devices, hurricane lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamp, gas mask, grab, clamshell grab, fail-safe system, mechanical musical instrument, automatic flute player, programmable machinePieter van Musschenbroek, (1692-1761), Netherlands - Leyden jar, pyrometer[edit] NIbn al-Nafis, (1213-1288), Syria/Egypt - circulatory physiology, otolaryngology, theological novel, science fiction novelJohn Napier, (1550-1617), Scotland - logarithmsJames Naismith, (1861-1939), Canadian born, USA - invented basketball and American football helmetYoshiro Nakamatsu, (b. 1928), Japan - floppy disk, "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meterJames Nasmyth, (1808-1890), Scotland - steam hammerNebuchadrezzar II, (c. 630-562 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw, screwpumpJohn von Neumann, (1903-1957), Hungary - Von Neumann computer architectureIsaac Newton,(1642-1727), England - reflecting telescope (which reduces chromatic aberration)Joseph Nicephore Niépce, (1765-1833), France - photographyJun-Ichi Nishizawa, (1926-), Japan - Optical communication system, SIT/SITh (Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor), Laser diode, PIN diodeAlfred Nobel, (1833-1896), Sweden - dynamiteCarl Rickard Nyberg, (1858-1939), Sweden - the blowtorch[edit] OTheophil Wilgodt Odhner, (1845-1903), Sweden - the Odhner Arithmometer, a mechanical calculatorJ. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904-1967), United States - Atomic bombHans Christian Ørsted, (1777-1851), Denmark - electromagnetism, aluminiumElisha Otis, (1811-1861), U.S. - passenger elevator with safety deviceWilliam Oughtred, (1575-1660), England - slide rule[edit] PLarry Page, (1973-), U.S. - with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engineHelge Palmcrantz, (1842-1880), Sweden - the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gunDaniel David Palmer, (1845-1913), Canada - ChiropracticLuigi Palmieri, (1807-1896), Italy - seismometerAlexander Parkes, (1831-1890), England - celluloidCharles Algernon Parsons, (1854-1931), British - steam turbineSpede Pasanen, (1930-2001), Finland - The ski jumping slingBlaise Pascal, (1623-1662), France - barometerLes Paul, (1915-), U.S. - Multitrack recordingNicolae Paulescu, (1869 - 1931), Romania - InsulinGustaf Erik Pasch, (1788-1862), Sweden - the safety matchArthur Paul Pedrick, England - chromatically selective cat flap and othersJohn Pemberton, (1831-1888), U.S. - Coca-ColaSlavoljub Eduard Penkala, (1871-1922), Croatia - mechanical pencilHenry Perky, (1843-1906), U.S. - Shredded wheatStephen Perry, England - rubber bandPeter Petroff, (1919-2004), Bulgaria - digital wrist watch, heart monitor, weather instrumentsFritz Pfleumer, (1881-1945), Germany - Magnetic TapeArthur Pitney, (1871-1933), United States - Postage meterJoseph Plateau, (1801-1883), Belgium - phenakistiscope (stroboscope)Baltzar von Platen, (1898-1984), Sweden - refrigeratorJames Leonard Plimpton, U.S. - roller skatesPetrache Poenaru, (1799 - 1875), Romania - Fountain penChristopher Polhem, (1661-1751), Sweden - the modern padlockIvan Polzunov, (1728-1766), Russia - first two-cylinder motorOlivia Poole, (1889-1975), U.S., - the Jolly Jumper baby harnessAlexander Stepanovich Popov, (1859-1906), Russia - Lightning detector.George Pullman, (1831-1897), U.S. - Pullman sleep wagonMichael I. Pupin, (1858-1935), Serbia - pupinization (loading coils), tunable oscillatorTivadar Puskas, (1844-1893), Hungary - telephone exchange[edit] RMario Rabinowitz, (1936-), U.S. - solar concentrator with tracking micromirrorsHasan al-Rammah, (fl. 1270s), Syria - purified potassium nitrate, explosive gunpowder, torpedoHarun al-Rashid, (763-809), Iraq/Persia - public hospital, medical schoolMuhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), (865-965), Persia - distillation and extraction methods, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, soap, kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, red lead, copper acetate, lead sulfide, zinc oxide, bismuth oxide, iron acetate, cinnabar, arsenic trioxide, sodium hydroxide, aludel, rose water, heated bath, funnel, sieveKarl von Reichenbach, (1788-1869), paraffin, creosote oil, phenolIra Remsen, (1846-1927), U.S. - saccharinRalf Reski, (* 1958), Germany - Moss Bioreactor 1998Josef Ressel, (1793-1857), Czechoslovakia - ship propellerCharles Francis Richter, (1900-1985), U.S. - Richter magnitude scaleHyman George Rickover, (1900-1986), U.S. - Nuclear submarineJohn Roebuck, (1718-1794) England - lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesisWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, (1845-1923), Germany - the X-ray machineErnő Rubik, (1944-), Hungary - Rubik's cube, Rubik's Magic and Rubik's ClockErnst Ruska, (1906-1988), Germany - electron microscope[edit] SAlexander Sablukov, (1783-1857), Russia - centrifugal fanŞerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, (1385-1468), Turkey - illustrated surgical atlasAndrei Sakharov, (1921-1989), Russia - invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, developed tokamaks for controlled nuclear fusionIbn Samh, (c. 1020), Middle East - mechanical geared astrolabeIbn Sina (Avicenna), (973-1037), Persia - thermometer, thermoscope, steam distillation, essential oil, pharmacopoeia, clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, quarantine, cancer surgery, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, phytotherapy, Hindiba, Taxus baccata L, calcium channel blockerAlberto Santos-Dumont, (1873-1932), Brazil - non-rigid airship and airplaneThomas Savery, (1650-1715), England - steam engineAdolphe Sax, (1814-1894), Belgium - saxophoneBela Schick, (1877-1967), Hungary - diphtheria testChristian Schnabel (1878-1936), German - simplistic food cutleriesKees A. Schouhamer Immink (1946- ), Netherlands - Major contributor to development of Compact DiscAugust Schrader, U.S. - Schrader valve for Pneumatic tireDavid Schwarz, (1852-1897), Croatia, - rigid ship, later called ZeppelinMarc Seguin, (1786-1875), France - wire-cable suspension bridgeSennacherib, (705-681 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw pumpIwan Serrurier, (active 1920s), Netherlands/U.S. - inventor of the Moviola for film editing.Mark Serrurier, (190?-1988), U.S. - Serrurier truss for Optical telescopesGerhard Sessler, (1931-), Germany - foil electret microphone, silicon microphoneAlexander Procofieff de Seversky, 1894-1974, Russia/United States of America - Air-to-air refuelingIbn al-Shatir, (1304-1375), Syria - astrolabic clock, compendium instrument, polar-axis sundial, compass dialShen Kuo, (1031-1095), China - improved gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra, and sighting tubePavel Schilling, (1780-1836), Estonia/Russia - first electromagnetic telegraphMurasaki Shikibu, (c. 973-1025), - novel, psychological novelFathullah Shirazi, (c. 1582), Mughal India - autocannon, multi-barrel gunAl-Sijzi, (c. 945-1020), Persia - heliocentric astrolabeWilliam Bradford Shockley, (1910-1989), U.S. - co-inventor of transistorHenry Shrapnel, (1761-1842), England - Shrapnel shell ammunitionSheikh Muszaphar Shukor, (b. 1972), Malaysia - cell growth in outer space, crystallization of proteins and microbes in spaceVladimir Shukhov, (1853-1939), Russia - Shukhov cracking process, thin-shell structure, tensile structure, built one of the first pipelinesAugustus Siebe, (1788-1872), Germany/England - Inventor of the standard diving dressWerner von Siemens, (1816-1892), Germany - an electromechanical "dynamic"Sir William Siemens, (1823-1883), Germany - regenerative furnaceIgor Sikorsky, (1889-1972), Russia/U.S. - helicopterCharles Simonyi, (1948-), Hungary - Hungarian notationIsaac Singer, (1811-1875), U.S. - sewing machineElmer Ambrose Sperry, (1860-1930), U.S. - gyroscope-guided automatic pilotGeorge Stephenson, (1781-1848), England - steam locomotiveSimon Stevin, (1548-1620), Netherlands - land yachtAurel Stodola, (1859-1942), Slovakia - gas turbinesReverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790-1878), Scotland - Stirling engineLevi Strauss, (1829-1902), U.S. - blue jeansJohn Stringfellow, (1799-1883), England - airplaneAlmon Strowger, (1839-1902), U.S. - automatic telephone exchangeSu Song, (1020-1101), China - first chain driveSimon Sunatori, (1959-), Canada - inventor of MagneScribe and Magic SpicerSushruta, (600 BC), Vedic India - inventor of Platic Surgery, Cataract Surgery, RhinoplastyJoseph Swan, (1828-1914), England - Incandescent light bulbPercy Spencer, (1894-1970), U.S. - microwave ovenAbd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), (903-986), Persia - timekeeping astrolabe, navigational astrolabe, surveying astrolabeRobert Swanson, (1905-1994), Canada - Invented and developed the first multi-chime air horn for use with diesel locomotivesLeó Szilárd, (1898-1964), Hungary/U.S. - Co-developed the atomic bomb, patented the nuclear reactor, catalyst of the Manhattan Project[edit] TSalih Tahtawi, (fl. 1659-1660), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe, lost-wax castingIgor Tamm, (1895-1971), Russia - with Andrey Sakharov, developed first tokamakMardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi, (c. 1187), Middle East - counterweight trebuchet, mangonelBernard Tellegen, (1900-1990), Netherlands - pentodeEdward Teller, (1908-2003), Hungary - hydrogen bombNikola Tesla, (1856-1943), Serbian-Croatian-American - Tesla Coil, induction motor, wireless communicationEric Tigerstedt, (1887-1925), Finland - triode vacuum tubeKalman Tihanyi, (1897-1947), Hungary - co-inventor of cathode ray tube and iconoscopeBenjamin Chew Tilghman, (1821-1897), U.S. - sandblastingTipu Sultan, (1750-1799), India - iron-cased and metal-cylinder rocketAlfred Traeger, (1895-1980), Australia - the pedal radioFranc Trkman, (1903-1978), Slovenia - electrical switches, accessories for opening windowsKonstantin Tsiolkovsky, (1857-1935), Russia - spaceflightMikhail Tsvet, (1872-1919), Russia - adsorption chromatographyIbn Tufail, (c. 1105-1185), Islamic Spain - philosophical novelNasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1201-1274), Persia - observatory, research instituteSharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1135-1213), Persia - linear astrolabe[edit] ULewis Urry, (1927-2004), Canada - long-lasting alkaline battery[edit] VTheophilus Van Kannel, (1841-1919), United States - revolving door (1888)Louis R. Vitullo, (1924?-2006), United States - developed the first sexual assault evidence kitAlessandro Volta, (1745-1827), Italy - batteryFaust Vrančić, (1551-1617), Croatia - parachute[edit] WBarnes Wallis, (1887-1979), England - bouncing bombRobert Watson-Watt, (1892-1973), Scotland - microwave radarJames Watt, (1736-1819), Scotland - improved Steam engineThomas Wedgwood, (1771-1805), England - first (not permanent) photographJonas Wenström, (1855-1893), Sweden - three-phase electrical powerGeorge Westinghouse, (1846-1914), U.S. - Air brake (rail)Charles Wheatstone, (1802-1875), England - concertina, stereoscope, microphone, Playfair cipherEli Whitney, (1765-1825), U.S. - the cotton ginFrank Whittle, (1907-1996), England - co-inventor of the jet engineOtto Wichterle, (1913-1989), Czechoslovakia - invented modern contact lensesPaul Winchell, (1922-2005), U.S. - the artificial heartA. Baldwin Wood, (1879-1956), U.S. - high volume pumpGranville Woods, (1856-1910), U.S. - the Synchronous Multiplex Railway TelegraphWright brothers, Orville (1871-1948) and Wilbur (1867-1912) - U.S. - powered airplaneArthur Wynne, (1862-1945), England - creator of crossword puzzle[edit] YPavel Yablochkov, (1847-1894), Russia - Yablochkov candle.Hidetsugu Yagi, (1886-1976), Japan - Yagi antennaKhalid ibn Yazid, (635-704), Syria/Egypt - potassium nitrateYi Xing, (683-727), ChinaArthur M. Young, (1905-1995), U.S. - the Bell HelicopterMuhammad Yunus, (b. 1940), Bangladesh - microcredit, microfinanceAbu Yaqub Yusuf, (c. 1274), Morocco/Spain - siege cannon[edit] ZAbu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), (936 - 1013), Islamic Spain - cosmetic dentistry, tooth bleaching, hair care, hair dye, solid lipstick, Hand cream and lotion, suntan lotion,[disambiguation needed] roll-on deodorant, epilepsy and seizure medications, nasal spray, topical cream, adhesive bandage and plaster, bone saw, catgut, cotton dressing and bandage, curette, retractor, sound, surgical spoon, surgical hook and rod, ligatureAbū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel), (1028-1087), Islamic Spain - almanac, equatorium, universal astrolabeNikolay Zelinsky, (1861-1953), Russia - the first effective filtering coal gas mask in the worldZhang Heng, (78-139), China - invented the first hydraulic-powered armillary sphereZheng He, (1371-1433), China - treasure shipZiryab, (789-857), Iraq/Syria/Tunisia/Spain - bangs, beauty parlour, cosmetology school, chemical depilatory, toothpaste, under-arm deodorant, three-course mealIbn Zuhr (Avenzoar), (1091-1161), Islamic Spain - general anaesthesia, general anaesthetic, oral anesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic, narcotic-soaked sponge, tracheotomy, parasitology, pharmacopoeiaKonrad Zuse, (22. June 1910 - 18. December 1995), Germany - invented the first Computer (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4)Vladimir Zworykin, (1889-1982), Russia/U.S. - Iconoscope, kinescope.

Explain the historical development of psychology as a science?

Philosophical interest in the general set of phenomena currently organized in the West under the label "psychology" dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. These earlier forms of inquiry began adopting what would now be recognized as a more clinical[1] and experimental[2] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, whose practitioners built what we would today recognize as psychiatric hospitals.[3] Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study is commonly said to have begun in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning). Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the 1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law, and other fields. Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James McKeen Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program of mental testing in the 1890s. In Vienna, meanwhile, the psychiatrist Sigmund Freud developed an independent approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis, which has been widely influential. The 20th century saw a reaction towards Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This contributed to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed limiting psychological study to that of overt behavior, because that could be quantified and easily measured. Behaviorists considered knowledge of the "mind" too metaphysical to achieve scientifically. The final decades of the 20th century saw the decline of behaviorism and the rise of an interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. This form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, soul, spirit, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (though in a medical/surgical context). Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only 1 contains incantations to ward off evil. It has been praised as being similar to what is today considered common knowledge, but must be recognized as having originated in a very different context. Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 bc) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuchẽ(from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms - nous, thumos, logistikon, etc. (see e.g., Everson, 1991; Green & Groff, 2003). The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in the Republic - see, e.g., Robinson, 1995), Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. Peri Psyches, better known under its Latin title, De Anima - see, e.g., Durrant, 1993; Nussbaum & Rorty, 1992). Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind (see e.g., Annas, 1992). The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC-61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments. In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system. In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early experiment, in which he asked people to draw a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other (ostensibly to test people's vulnerability to distraction). India, too, had an elaborate theory of "the self" in its Vedanta philosophical writings (see e.g., Paranjpe, 1998).The first institutions recognizable as insane asylums were built in the medieval Islamic world in the 8th century: in Baghdad in 705, Fes in the early 8th century, Cairo in 800, and Damascus and Aleppo in 1270.[4] Medieval Muslim physicians also developed practices to treat patients suffering from a variety of "diseases of the mind".[5] Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850-934) was among the first, in this tradition, to discuss disorders related to both the body and the mind, arguing that "if the nafs [psyche] gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness."[6] Al-Balkhi recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced." He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other bodily illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other nafs-related symptoms. He recognized two types of what we now call depression: one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure, which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine.[6] In the 1010s, the Iraqi Arab scientist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) began to carry out experiments in areas related to body and the nafs. In his Book of Optics, for example, he examined visual perception and what we now call sensation, including variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colors, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.[2][7] Al-Biruni also employed such experimental methods in examining reaction time.[8] Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of nafs-related illnesses, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings. Avicenna also described phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.[9] Other medieval thinkers who discussed issues related to psychology included: * Ibn Sirin, who wrote a book on dreams and dream interpretation;[10] * Al-Kindi (Alkindus), who developed forms of music therapy;[11] * Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-'ilaj al-nafs(sometimes translated as "psychotherapy"),[12] * Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), who discussed subjects related to social psychology and consciousness studies;[13] * Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas), described neuroanatomy and neurophysiology;[13] * Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), described neurosurgery;[14] * Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who described reaction time;[15] * Ibn Tufail, who anticipated the tabula rasa argument and nature versus nurture debate.[16] Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) described disorders similar to meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors; Averroes attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina; and Maimonides described rabies and belladonna intoxication.[17] Witelo is considered a precursor of perception psychology. His Perspectiva contains much material in psychology, outlining views that are close to modern notions on the association of ideas and on the subconscious.Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the Arab and Islamic translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the 12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to be used during the Renaissance, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate. [18] The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547-1628, often known under the Latin form Rudolph Goclenius), who published the Yucologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450-1524) in the title of his Latin treatise, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae.Although the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krstić, 1964). This, of course, may well not have been the very first usage, but it is the earliest documented use at present. The term did not come into popular usage until the German idealist philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679-1754) used it in his Psychologia empirica and Psychologia rationalis (1732-1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in Denis Diderot's (1713-1780) Encyclopédie(1751-1784) and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran (1766-1824). In England, the term "psychology" overtook "mental philosophy" in the middle of the 19th century, especially in the work of William Hamilton (1788-1856) (see Danziger, 1997, chap. 3). Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term).[citation needed] The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596-1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul (1649) and Treatise on Man(completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of The World, withheld from publication after Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published posthumously, in 1664). Although not educated as a doctor, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts and was considered important enough for Harvey to respond to. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without the soul, thus contradicting the "Doctrine of the Soul". The emergence of psychology as a medical discipline was given a major boost by Thomas Willis, not only in his reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, but through his detailed 1672 anatomical work, and his treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). However, Willis acknowledged the influence of Descartes's rival, Pierre Gassendi, as an inspiration for his work. The philosophers of the British Empiricist and Associationist schools had a profound impact on the later course of experimental psychology. John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), George Berkeley's Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge(1710), and David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature(1739-1740) were particularly influential, as were David Hartley's Observations on Man (1749) and John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic. (1843). Also notable was the work of some Continental Rationalist philosophers, especially Baruch Spinoza's (1632-1677) On the Improvement of the Understanding (1662) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's (1646-1716) New Essays on Human Understanding (completed 1705, published 1765). Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism," to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless.Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention to animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that it 'generated from within the mind' by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient. Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of physicians John Elliotson (1791-1868), James Esdaile (1808-1859), and James Braid (1795-1860), who renamed it "hypnotism." Mesmerism also continued to have a strong social (if not medical) following in England through the 19th century (see Winter, 1998).Faria's approach was significantly extended by the clinical and theoretical work of Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernheim of the Nancy School. Faria's theoretical position, and the subsequent experiences of those in the Nancy School made significant contributions to the later autosuggestion techniques of Émile Coué. It was adopted for the treatment of hysteria by the director of Paris's Salpêtrière Hospital, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893). Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brain structure developed by the German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large number of functional "organs," each responsible for particular human mental abilities and dispositions - hope, love, spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre Flourens (1794-1867), who conducted ablation studies (on chickens) which purported to demonstrate little or no cerebral localization of function. Although Gall had been a serious (if misguided) researcher, his theory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology, which soon spawned, especially in Britain, a thriving industry of independent practitioners. In the hands of Scottish religious leader George Combe (1788-1858) (whose book The Constitution of Man was one of the best-sellers of the century), phrenology became strongly associated with political reform movements and egalitarian principles (see, e.g., Shapin, 1975; but also see van Wyhe, 2004). Phrenology soon spread to America as well, where itinerant practical phrenologists assessed the mental well-being of willing customers (see Sokal, 2001). Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. For instance, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) declared in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786) that a scientific psychology "properly speaking" is impossible. However, Kant proposed what looks to modern eyes very much like an empirical psychology in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798). Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) took issue with Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to render his theory empirically testable, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795-1878) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics. Meanwhile, individual differences in reaction time had become a critical issue in the field of astronomy, under the name of the "personal equation". Early researches by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784-1846) in Königsberg and Adolf Hirsch led to the development of a highly precise chronoscope by Mathias Hipp that, in turn, was based on a design by Charles Wheatstone for a device that measured the speed of artillery shells (Edgell & Symes, 1906). Other timing instruments were borrowed from physiology (e.g., the kymograph) and adapted for use by the Utrecht ophthamologist Franciscus Donders (1818-1899) and his student Johan Jacob de Jaager in measuring the duration of simple mental decisions. The 19th century was also the period in which physiology, including neurophysiology, professionalized and saw some of its most significant discoveries. Among its leaders were Charles Bell (1774-1843) and François Magendie (1783-1855) who independently discovered the distinction between sensory and motor nerves in the spinal column, Johannes Müller (1801-1855) who proposed the doctrine of specific nerve energies, Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818-1896) who studied the electrical basis of muscle contraction, Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) and Carl Wernicke (1848-1905) who identified areas of the brain responsible for different aspects of language, as well as Gustav Fritsch (1837-1927), Eduard Hitzig (1839-1907), and David Ferrier (1843-1924) who localized sensory and motor areas of the brain. One of the principal founders of experimental physiology, Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), conducted studies of a wide range of topics that would later be of interest to psychologists - the speed of neural transmission, the natures of sound and color, and of our perceptions of them, etc. In the 1860s, while he held a position in Heidelberg, Helmholtz engaged as an assistant a young M.D. named Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt employed the equipment of the physiology laboratory - chronoscope, kymograph, and various peripheral devices - to address more complicated psychological questions than had until then been considered experimentally. In particular he was interested in the nature of apperception - the point at which a perception comes into the central focus of conscious awareness. In 1874 Wundt took up a professorship in Zurich, where he published his landmark textbook, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology, 1874). Moving to a more prestigious professorship in Leipzig in 1875, Wundt founded a laboratory specifically dedicated to original research in experimental psychology in 1879, the first laboratory of its kind in the world. In 1883, he launched a journal in which to publish the results of his, and his students', research, Philosophische Studien(Philosophical Studies) (For more on Wundt, see, e.g., Bringmann & Tweney, 1980; Rieber & Robinson, 2001). Wundt attracted a large number of students not only from Germany, but also from abroad. Among his most influential American students were G. Stanley Hall (who had already obtained a PhD from Harvard under the supervision of William James), James McKeen Cattell (who was Wundt's first assistant), and Frank Angell. The most influential British student was Edward Bradford Titchener (who later became professor at Cornell). Experimental psychology laboratories were soon also established at Berlin by Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) and at Göttingen by Georg Elias Müller (1850-1934). Another major German experimental psychologist of the era, though he did not direct his own research institute, was Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909). Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria." He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness - yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are examples of the existence of mental processes in which the individual is not conscious, through choice or lack of understanding, of some aspects of their personality and subsequent behavior. Psychoanalysis examines mental processes which affect the ego. An understanding of these theoretically allows the individual greater choice and consciousness with a healing effect in neurosis and occasionally in psychosis, both of which Richard von Krafft-Ebing defined as "diseases of the personality". Carl G. Jung was an associate of Freud's who later broke with him over Freud's emphasis on sexuality. Working with concepts of the unconscious first noted during the 1800s (by John Stuart Mill, Krafft-Ebing, Pierre Janet, Théodore Flournoy and others), Jung defined four mental functions which relate to and define the ego, the conscious self. Sensation (which tell consciousness that something is there), feelings (which consist of value judgments, and motivate our reaction to what we have sensed), intellect (an analytic function that compares this event to all known events and gives it a class and category, allowing us to understand a situation within a historical process, personal or public), and intuition (a mental function with access to deep behavioral patterns, intuition can suggest unexpected solutions or predict unforeseen consequences, "as if seeing around corners" as Jung put it). Jung insisted on an empirical psychology in which theories must be based on facts and not on the psychologist's projections or expectations. Around 1875, the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, in those days, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, contra Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume Principles of Psychology would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889). In 1879 Charles Sanders Peirce was hired as a philosophy instructor at Johns Hopkins University. Although better known for his astronomical and philosophical work, Peirce also conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color vision, published in 1877 in the American Journal of Science (see Cadwallder, 1974). Peirce and his student Joseph Jastrow published "On Small Differences in Sensation" in the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G. Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology, which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. In 1888 Hall left his Johns Hopkins professorship for the presidency of the newly-founded Clark University, where he remained for the rest of his career. Soon, experimental psychology laboratories were opened at the University of Pennsylvania (in 1887, by James McKeen Cattell), Indiana University (1888, William Lowe Bryan), the University of Wisconsin-Madison (1888, Joseph Jastrow), Clark University (1889, Edmund Clark Sanford), the McLean Asylum (1889, William Noyes), and the University of Nebraska (1889, Harry Kirke Wolfe). However, it was Princeton University's Eno Hall, built in 1924, that became the first university building in the United States to be devoted entirely to experimental psychology when it became the home of the university's Department of Psychology.[19] In 1890, William James' Principles of Psychology finally appeared, and rapidly became the most influential textbook in the history of American psychology. It laid many of the foundations for the sorts of questions that American psychologists would focus on for years to come. The book's chapters on consciousness, emotion, and habit were particularly agenda-setting. One of those who felt the impact of James' Principles was John Dewey, then professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan. With his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts (who founded the psychology laboratory at Michigan) and George Herbert Mead, and his student James Rowland Angell, this group began to reformulate psychology, focusing more strongly on the social environment and on the activity of mind and behavior than the psychophysics-inspired physiological psychology of Wundt and his followers had heretofore. Tufts left Michigan for another junior position at the newly-founded University of Chicago in 1892. A year later, the senior philosopher at Chicago resigned, and Tufts recommended to Chicago president William Rainey Harper that Dewey be offered the position. After initial reluctance, Dewey was hired in 1894. Dewey soon filled out the department with his Michigan companions Mead and Angell. These four formed the core of the Chicago School of psychology. In 1892, G. Stanley Hall invited 30-some psychologists and philosophers to a meeting at Clark with the purpose of founding a new American Psychological Association (APA). (On the history of the APA, see Evans, Staudt Sexton, & Cadwallader, 1992.) The first annual meeting of the APA was held later that year, hosted by George S. Fullerton at the University of Pennsylvania. Almost immediately tension arose between the experimentally- and philosophically-inclined members of the APA. Edward Bradford Titchener and Lightner Witmer launched an attempt to either establish a separate "Section" for philosophical presentations, or to eject the philosophers altogether. After nearly a decade of debate a Western Philosophical Association was founded and held its first meeting in 1901 at the University of Nebraska. The following year (1902), an American Philosophical Association held its first meeting at Columbia University. These ultimately became the Central and Eastern Divisions of the modern American Philosophical Association. In 1894, a number of psychologists, unhappy with the parochial editorial policies of the American Journal of Psychology approached Hall about appointing an editorial board and opening the journal out to more psychologists not within Hall's immediate circle. Hall refused, so James McKeen Cattell (then of Columbia) and James Mark Baldwin (then of Princeton University's Department of Psychology) co-founded a new journal, Psychological Review, which rapidly grew to become a major outlet for American psychological researchers. Beginning in 1895, James Mark Baldwin (Princeton University Department of Psychology) and Edward Bradford Titchener (Cornell) entered into an increasingly acrimonious dispute over the correct interpretation of some anomalous reaction time findings that had come from the Wundt laboratory (originally reported by Ludwig Lange and James McKeen Cattell). In 1896, James Rowland Angell and Addison W. Moore (Chicago) published a series of experiments in Psychological Review appearing to show that Baldwin was the more correct of the two. However, they interpreted their findings in light of John Dewey's new approach to psychology, which rejected the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one views the situation. The full position was laid out in Dewey's landmark article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which also appeared in Psychological Review in 1896. Titchener responded in Philosophical Review (1898, 1899) by distinguishing his austere "structural" approach to psychology from what he termed the Chicago group's more applied "functional" approach, and thus began the first major theoretical rift in American psychology between Structuralism and Functionalism. The group at Columbia, led by James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, was often regarded as a second (after Chicago) "school" of American Functionalism (see, e.g., Heidbredder, 1933), although they never used that term themselves, because their research focused on the applied areas of mental testing, learning, and education. Dewey was elected president of the APA in 1899, while Titchener dropped his membership in the association. (In 1904, Titchener formed his own group, eventually known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists.) Jastrow promoted the functionalist approach in his APA presidential address of 1900, and Angell adopted Titchener's label explicitly in his influential textbook of 1904 and his APA presidential address of 1906. In reality, Structuralism was, more or less, confined to Titchener and his students. Functionalism, broadly speaking, with its more practical emphasis on action and application, better suited the American cultural "style" and, perhaps more important, was more popular among university trustees and private funding agencies. In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napoléon (president, 1848-1852; emperor as "Napoléon III," 1852-1870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (1792-1867), Théodore Jouffroy (1796-1842), and Paul Janet (1823-1899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napoléon III after the débacle of the Franco-Prussian war, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From the 1870 forward, a steadily increasing interest in positivist, materialist, evolutionary, and deterministic approaches to psychology developed, influenced by, among others, the work of Hyppolyte Taine (1828-1893) (e.g., De L'Intelligence, 1870) and Théodule Ribot (1839-1916) (e.g., La Psychologie Anglaise Contemporaine, 1870). In 1876, Ribot founded Revue Philosophique (the same year as Mind was founded in Britain), which for the next generation would be virtually the only French outlet for the "new" psychology (Plas, 1997). Although not a working experimentalist himself, Ribot's many books were to have profound influence on the next generation of psychologists. These included especially his L'Hérédité Psychologique (1873) and La Psychologie Allemande Contemporaine (1879). In the 1880s, Ribot's interests turned to psychopathology, writing books on disorders of memory (1881), will (1883), and personality (1885), and where he attempted to bring to these topics the insights of general psychology. Although in 1881 he lost a Sorbonne professorship in the History of Psychological Doctrines to traditionalist Jules Soury (1842-1915), from 1885 to 1889 he taught experimental psychology at the Sorbonne. In 1889 he was awarded a chair at the Collège de France in Experimental and Comparative Psychology, which he held until 1896 (Nicolas, 2002). France's primary psychological strength lay in the field of psychopathology. The chief neurologist at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893), had been using the recently revivied and renamed (see above) practice of hypnoisis to "experimentally" produce hysterical symptoms in some of his patients. Two of his students, Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and Pierre Janet (1859-1947), adopted and expanded this practice in their own work. In 1889, Binet and his colleague Henri Beaunis (1830-1921) co-founded, at the Sorbonne, the first experimental psychology laboratory in France. Just five years later, in 1894, Beaunis, Binet, and a third colleague, Victor Henri (1872-1940), co-founded the first French journal dedicated to experimental psychology, L'Année Psychologique. In the first years of the 20th century, Binet was requested by the French government to develop a method for the newly-founded universal public education system to identify students who would require extra assistance to master the standardized curriculum. In response, with his collaborator Théodore Simon (1873-1961), he developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, first published in 1905 (revised in 1908 and 1911). Although the test was used to effect in France, it would find its greatest success (and controversy) in the United States, where it was translated in by Henry H. Goddard (1866-1957), the director of the Training School for the Feebleminded in Vineland, New Jersey, and his assistant, Elizabeth Kite (a translation of the 1905 edition appeared in the Vineland Bulletin in 1908, but much better known was Kite's 1916 translation of the 1908 edition, which appeared in book form). The translated test was used by Goddard to advance his eugenics agenda with respect to those he deemed congenitally feeble-minded, especially immigrants from non-Western European countries. Binet's test was revised by Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956) into the Stanford-Binet IQ test in 1916. With Binet's death in 1911, the Sorbonne laboratory and L'Année Psychologique fell to Henri Piéron (1881-1964). Piéron's orientation was more physiological that Binet's had been. Pierre Janet became the leading psychiatrist in France, being appointed to the Salpêtrière (1890-1894), the Sorbonne (1895-1920), and the Collège de France (1902-1936). In 1904, he co-founded the Journale de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique with fellow Sorbonne professor Georges Dumas (1866-1946), a student and faithful follower of Ribot. Whereas Janet's teacher, Charcot, had focused on the neurologial bases of hysteria, Janet was concerned to develop a scientific approach to psychopathology as a mental disorder. His theory that mental pathology results from conflict between unconscious and conscious parts of the mind, and that unconscious mental contents may emerge as symptoms with symbolic meanings led to a public priority dispute with Sigmund Freud. Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology - Mind, founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson - it was quite a long while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of "mental philosophy." The experimental reports that appeared in Mind in the first two decades of its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell. Francis Galton's (1822-1911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity) attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help interpret the mounds of data he accumulated, Galton developed a number of important statistical techniques, including the precursors to the scatterplot and the product-moment correlation coefficient (later perfected by Karl Pearson, 1857-1936). Soon after, Charles Spearman (1863-1945) developed the correlation-based statistical procedure of factor analysis in the process of building a case for his two-factor theory of intelligence, published in 1901. Spearman believed that people have an inborn level of general intelligence or g which can be crystallized into a specific skill in any of a number of narrow content area (s, or specific intelligence). Laboratory psychology of the kind practiced in Germany and the United States was slow in coming to Britain. Although the philosopher James Ward (1843-1925) urged Cambridge University to establish a psychophysics laboratory from the mid-1870s forward, it was not until the 1891 that they put so much as £50 toward some basic apparatus (Bartlett, 1937). A laboratory was established through the assistance of the physiology department in 1897 and a lectureship in psychology was established which first went to W. H. R. Rivers (1864-1922). Soon Rivers was joined by C. S. Myers (1873-1946) and William McDougall (1871-1938). This group showed as much interest in anthropology as psychology, going with Alfred Cort Haddon (1855-1940) on the famed Torres Straits expedition of 1898. In 1901 the Psychological Society was established (which renamed itself the British Psychological Society in 1906), and in 1904 Ward and Rivers co-founded the British Journal of Psychology. In 1896, one of Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862-1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, most notably Narziß Ach (1871-1946), Karl Bühler (1879-1963), Ernst Dürr (1878-1913), Karl Marbe (1869-1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879-1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation (Selbstbeobachtung) in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes and inner-perception (innere Wahrnehmung) in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image (Vorstellung). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through Völkerpsychologie (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation. The Würzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (e.g., a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and after processing it for a time (e.g., interpreting the aphorism or solving the problem), retrospectively reported to the experimenter all that had passed through his consciousness during the interval. In the process, the Würzburgers claimed to have discovered a number of new elements of consciousness (over and above Wundt's sensations, feelings, and images) including Bewußtseinslagen (conscious sets), Bewußtheiten (awarenesses), and Gedanken (thoughts). In the English-language literature, these are often collectively termed "imageless thoughts," and the debate between Wundt and the Würzburgers as the "imageless thought controversy." Wundt referred to the Würzburgers' studies as "sham" experiments and criticized them vigorously. Wundt's most significant English student, Edward Bradford Titchener, then working at Cornell, intervened in the dispute, claiming to have conducted extended introspective studies in which he was able to resolve the Würzburgers imageless thoughts into sensations, feelings, and images. He thus, paradoxically, used a method of which Wundt did not approve in order to affirm Wundt's view of the situation (see Kusch, 1995; Kroker, 2003). The imageless thought debate is often said to have been instrumental in undermining the legitimacy of all introspective methods in experimental psychology and, ultimately, in bringing about the behaviorist revolution in American psychology. It was not without its own delayed legacy, however. Herbert Simon cites the work of one Würzburg psychologists in particular, Otto Selz (1881-1943), for having inspired him to develop his famous problem-solving computer algorithms (e.g., Logic Theorist and General Problem Solver) and his "thinking out loud" method for protocol analysis. In addition, Karl Popper studied psychology under Bühler and Selz, and appears to have brought some of their influence, unattributed, to his philosophy of science (Ter Hark, 2004). (This section adapted from Green, 2000, by permission of the author.) Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named Gestalt, a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration." It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859-1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element Gestalt-qualität or "form-quality." For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them which binds them together into a tune - the Gestalt-qualität. It is the presence of this Gestalt-qualität which, according to Von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, but still retain its identity. Wertheimer took the more radical line that "what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is," (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly in vision, one sees the form of the circle first - it is given "im-mediately" (i.e. its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars. Gestalt-Theorie was officially initiated in 1912 in an article by Wertheimer on the phi-phenomenon; a perceptual illusion in which two stationary but alternately flashing lights appear to be a single light moving from one location to another. Contrary to popular opinion, his primary target was not behaviorism, as it was not yet a force in psychology. The aim of his criticism was, rather, the atomistic psychologies of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), and other European psychologists of the time. The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiment were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max Planck (1858-1947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (1848-1936). Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917 Köhler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively. The terms "structure" and "organization" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Köhler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials. In 1921 Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, Growth of the Mind. With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in Psychological Bulletin. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935 Koffka published his Principles of Gestalt Psychology. This textbook laid out the Gestalt vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the Gestaltists was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have swallow not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other "scientific categories": questions of order and questions of Sinn, a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings. Having survived the onslaught of the Nazis up to the mid-1930s (see Henle, 1978), all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935 (Henle, 1984). Köhler published another book, Dynamics in Psychology, in 1940 but thereafter the Gestalt movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, Productive Thinking was published posthumously in 1945 but Köhler was now left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues. (For more on the history of Gestalt psychology, see Ash, 1995.) As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William James' 1904 Journal of Philosophy... article "Does Consciousness Exist?", laid out the worries explicitly. Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in American Journal of Psychology). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 Journal of Philosophy... article "Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (1878-1959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, Psychological Review Monograph Supplement; Carr & Watson, 1908, J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology). Another important rat study was published by Henry H. Donaldson (1908, J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology). The year 1909 saw the first English-language account of Ivan Pavlov's studies of conditioning in dogs (Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909, Psychological Bulletin). A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin. In addition to heading the Johns Hopkins department, Baldwin was the editor of the influential journals, Psychological Review and Psychological Bulletin. Only months after Watson's arrival, Baldwin was forced to resign his professorship due to scandal. Watson was suddenly made head of the department and editor of Baldwin's journals. He resolved to use these powerful tools to revolutionize psychology in the image of his own research. In 1913 he published in Psychological Review the article that is often called the "manifesto" of the behaviorist movement, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." There he argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods..." and "The behaviorist... recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". The following year, 1914, his first textbook, Behavior went to press. Although behaviorism took some time to be accepted as a comprehensive approach (see Samelson, 1981), (in no small part because of the intervention of World War I), by the 1920s Watson's revolution was well underway. The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals. Watson himself, however, was forced out of Johns Hopkins by scandal in 1920. Although he continued to publish during the 1920s, he eventually moved on to a career in advertising (see Coon, 1994). Among the behaviorists who continued on, there were a number of disagreements about the best way to proceed. Neo-behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman, Edwin Guthrie, Clark L. Hull, and B. F. Skinner debated issues such as (1) whether to reformulate the traditional psychological vocabulary in behavioral terms or discard it in favor of a wholly new scheme, (2) whether learning takes place all at once or gradually, (3) whether biological drives should be included in the new science in order to provide a "motivation" for behavior, and (4) to what degree any theoretical framework is required over and above the measured effects of reinforcement and punishment on learning. By the late 1950s, Skinner's formulation had become dominant, and it remains a part of the modern discipline under the rubric of Behavior Analysis. Behaviorism was the ascendant experimental model for research in psychology for much of the 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in advertising) of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behaviour. In 1918, Jean Piaget (1896-1980) turned away from his early training in Natural History and began post-doctoral work in psychoanalysis in Zurich. In 1919, he moved to Paris to work at the Binet-Simon Lab. However, Binet had died in 1911 and Simon lived and worked in Rouen. His supervision therefore came (indirectly) from Pierre Janet, Binet's old rival and a professor at the College de France. The job in Paris was relatively simple: to use the statistical techniques he had learned as a natural historian, studying molluscs, to standardize Cyril Burt's intelligence test for use with French children. Yet without direct supervision, he soon found a remedy to this boring work: exploring why children made the mistakes they did. Applying his early training in psychoanalytic interviewing, Piaget began to intervene directly with the children: "Why did you do that?" (etc.) It was from this that the ideas formalized in his later stage theory first emerged. In 1921, Piaget moved to Geneva to work with Edouard Claparède at the Rousseau Institute. In 1936, Piaget received his first honorary doctorate from Harvard. In 1955, the International Center for Genetic Epistemology was founded: an interdisciplinary collaboration of theoreticians and scientists, devoted to the study of topics related to Piaget's theory. In 1969, Piaget received the "distinguished scientific contributions" award from the American Psychological Association. Noam Chomsky's (1957) review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major theoretical challenges to the type of radical behaviorism that Skinner taught. Chomsky showed that language could not be learned solely from the sort of operant conditioning that Skinner postulated. Chomsky's argument was that as people could produce an infinite variety of sentences unique in structure and meaning, and that these could not possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language. As an alternative, he concluded that there must be internal mental structures - states of mind of the sort that behaviorism rejected as illusory. Similarly, work by Albert Bandura showed that children could learn by social observation, without any change in overt behaviour, and so must be accounted for by internal representations. The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as the dominant model of the mind. Links between brain and nervous system function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people like Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as philosophy, computer science, and neuroscience) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of cognitive science has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way. Not all psychologists, however, have been content to follow what they perceive as mechanical models of the mind and human nature. Carl Jung, a one-time follower and contemporary of Freud, was instrumental in introducing notions of spirituality into Freudian psychoanalysis (Freud had rejected religion as a mass delusion). The soul is explored in-depth in the Neo-Jungian school of archetypal psychology. Alfred Adler, after a brief association with Freud's discussion circle, left to form his own discipline, called Individual (indivisible) Psychology. His influence on contemporary psychology has been considerable, with many approaches borrowing fragments of his theory. A recent rebirth of his legacy, Classical Adlerian Psychology, combines Adler's original theory of personality, style of psychotherapy, and philosophy of living, with Abraham Maslow's vision of optimal functioning. Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and behaviorist approaches to the mind. It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research. The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought are Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs; Carl Rogers, who created and developed client centred therapy; and Fritz Perls, who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. A further development of Humanistic psychology emerging in the 1970s was Transpersonal psychology, which studies the spiritual dimension of humanity, looking at the possibilities for development beyond the normal ego-boundaries.This was taken directly from WIKIPEDIA...I claim no responsibility ---Damagedgoods23

List of inventors and their inventions?

A* Bruno Abakanowicz, (1852-1900), Poland/Lithuania/Russia/France - Integraph, spirograph, parabolagraph* Vitaly Abalakov, (1906-1986), Russia - camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread) gearless ice climbing anchor* Hovannes Adamian, (1879-1932), Armenia/Russia - tricolor principle of the color television* Robert Adler, (1913-2007), Austria/United States - wireless remote control* Turhan Alçelik (c. 2006), Turkey - non-glaring headlamp* Anatoly Alexandrov, (1903-1994), Russia - anti-mine demagnetising of ships, naval nuclear reactors (including one for the first nuclear icebreaker)* Alexandre Alexeieff, (1901-1982) Russia/France - pinscreen animation (with his wife Claire Parker)* Rostislav Alexeyev, (1916-1980), Russia - ekranoplan* Zhores Alferov, (1930), Russia - heterotransistor, continuous-wave-operating diode laser (together with Dmitri Garbuzov)* Genrich Altshuller, (1926-1998), Russia - TRIZ ("The Theory of Solving Inventor's Problems")* Mary Anderson, (1866-1953), United States - windshield wiper blade* Vasily Andreyev, (1861-1918), Russia - standard balalaika* Oleg Antonov, (1906-1984), Russia - An-series aircraft, including A-40 winged tank and An-124 (the largest serial cargo, later modified to world's largest fixed-wing aircraft An-225)* Nicolas Appert, (1749-1841), France - canning (airtight food preservation)* Archimedes, (c. 287-212 BC), Greece - Archimedes' screw* Ami Argand, (1750-1803), France - Argand lamp* Edwin H. Armstrong,(1890-1954), U.S. - FM radio* William George Armstrong, (1810-1900), UK - hydraulic crane* Neil Arnott, (1788-1874), UK - waterbed* Lev Artsimovich, (1909-1973), Russia - tokamak* Al-Ashraf, (fl. 1282-1296), Yemen - dry compass* Joseph Aspdin, (1788-1855), England - Portland cement* John Vincent Atanasoff, (1903-1995), United States - modern programmable computerB* Georgy Babakin, (1914-1971), Russia - first soft landing space vehicle (Luna 9)* Charles Babbage, (1791-1871), UK - analytical engine (semi-automatic computer)* Roger Bacon, (1214-1292), England - magnifying glass* Leo Baekeland, (1863-1944), Belgian-American - Velox photographic paper and Bakelite* Ralph H. Baer, (1922-), German born American - video game console* Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, (1162-1231), Iraq/Egypt - ventilator* John Logie Baird, (1888-1946), Scotland - an electromechanical television, electronic color television* Ibn al-Baitar, (d. 1248), Islamic Spain - three hundred drugs and foods, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, Hindiba, pharmacopoeia* Abi Bakr of Isfahan, (c. 1235), Persia/Iran - mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar analog computer* Donat Banki, (1859-1922), Hungary - inventor of the carburetor* Vladimir Baranov-Rossine, (1888-1944), Ukraine/Russia/France - Optophonic Piano, pointillist or dynamic military camouflage* John Bardeen, (1908-1991), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor* Vladimir Barmin, (1909-1993), Russia - first rocket launch complex (spaceport)* Anthony R. Barringer, Canada/U.S. - INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system* Earl W. Bascom, (1906-1995), Canada/U.S. - side-delivery rodeo chute, hornless rodeo saddle, rodeo bareback rigging, rodeo chaps* Nikolay Basov, (1922-2001), Russia - co-inventor of laser and maser* Ibn Bassal, (fl.1038-1075), Islamic Spain - flywheel, flywheel-driven noria, flywheel-driven saqiya chain pump* Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius), (853-929), Syria/Turkey - observation tube* Eugen Baumann, (1846-1896), Germany - PVC* Trevor Baylis, (1937-), UK - a wind-up radio* Francis Beaufort, (1774-1857), France - Beaufort scale* Ernest Beaux, (1881-1961), Russia/France - Chanel No. 5* Arnold O. Beckman, (1900-2004), U.S. - pH meter* Ulugh Beg, 1394-1449, Persia/Iran - Fakhri sextant, mural sextant* Vladimir Bekhterev, (1857-1927), Russia - Bekhterev's Mixture* Alexander Graham Bell, (1847-1922), Canada, Scotland, and U.S. - telephone* Karl Benz, (1844-1929), Germany - the petrol-powered automobile* Alexander Bereznyak, (1912-1974), Russia - first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, BI-1 (together with Isaev)* Georgy Beriev, (1903-1979), Georgia/Russia - Be-series amphibious aircraft* Emile Berliner, (1851-1929), Germany and U.S. - the disc record gramophone* Nikolay Benardos, (1842-1905), Russia - arc welding (specifically carbon arc welding, the first arc welding method)* Tim Berners-Lee, (1955-), UK - with Robert Cailliau, the World Wide Web* Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, (955-996), Egypt - airmail, homing pigeon* Bi Sheng (Chinese: 畢昇), (ca. 990-1051), China - clay movable type printing* Laszlo Biro, (1899-1985), Hungary - modern ballpoint pen* Clarence Birdseye, (1886-1956), U.S. - frozen food process* Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, (973-1048), Persia/Iran - mechanical geared lunisolar calendar analog computer, fixed-wired knowledge processing machine, conical measure, laboratory flask, Orthographical astrolabe, hodometer, pycnometer* J. Stuart Blackton, (1875-1941), U.S. - stop-motion film* Otto Blathy (1860-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of the transformer, wattmeter, alternating current (AC) and turbogenerator* Fyodor Blinov, (1827-1902), Russia - first tracked vehicle, steam-powered continuous track tractor* Katharine B. Blodgett, (1898-1979), UK - nonreflective glass* Alan Blumlein, (1903-1942), England - stereo* Nils Bohlin, (1920-2002), Sweden - the three-point seat belt* Joseph-Armand Bombardier, (1907-1964), Canada - snowmobile* Sam Born, Russia/U.S. - lollipop-making machine* Jagdish Chandra Bose, (1858-1937), India - Crescograph* George de Bothezat, (1882-1940), Russia/U.S. - quadrotor helicopter (The Flying Octopus)* Robert W. Bower, (1936-), U.S. - self-aligned-gate MOSFET* Seth Boyden, (1788-1870), U.S. - nail-making machine* Walter Houser Brattain, (1902-1987), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor* Louis Braille, (1809-1852), France - the Braille writing system* Karl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918), Germany - cathode-ray tube oscilloscope* Harry Brearley, (1871-1948), UK - stainless steel* Sergey Brin, (1973-), Russia/U.S. - with Larry Page invented Google web search engine* Mikhail Britnev, (1822-1889), Russia - first metal-hull icebreaker (Pilot)* Rachel Fuller Brown, (1898-1980), U.S., Nystatin, the world's first antifungal antibiotic* John Moses Browning, (1855-1926), U.S. - automatic handgun* Maria Christina Bruhn, (1732-1802), Sweden* Nikolay Brusentsov, (born 1925), Russia - ternary computer (Setun)* Edwin Beard Budding, (1795-1846), UK - lawnmower* Gersh Budker, (1918-1977), Russia - electron cooling, co-inventor of collider* Corliss Orville Burandt, U.S. - Variable valve timing* Henry Burden,(1791-1871) Scotland and U.S.- Horseshoe machine (made 60 horse shoes in a minute), first usable Iron Railed road spike, and builder of the most powerful waterwheel in history "Niagara of Water-Wheels"* Richard James Burgess, U.K. - Simmons (electronic drum company), co-inventor of SDS5 drum synthesizer* Aleksandr Butlerov, (1828-1886), Russia - hexamine, formaldehydeC* Robert Cailliau, (1947-), Belgium - with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web* C`ai Lun, 蔡倫 (50-121 AD), China - paper* Marvin Camras, (1916-1995), U.S. - magnetic recording* Chester Carlson, (1906-1968), U.S. - Xerography* Wallace Carothers, (1896-1937), U.S. - Nylon* Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi, (fl.1630-1632), Turkey - long-distance flight, artificial wings* Lagari Hasan Celebi, (1633), Turkey - first manned rocket flight* Joseph Constantine Carpue, (1764-1846), France - rhinoplastic surgery* George Cayley, (1773-1857), UK - glider, tension-spoke wheels, Caterpillar track* Roxey Ann Caplin, (1793-1888), UK - Corsets* Dennis Charter, (1952-), Australia - secure electronic payment system for internet PaySafe* Vladimir Chelomey, (1914-1984), Russia - first space station (Salyut), Proton rocket (the most used heavy lift launch system)* Pavel Cherenkov, (1904-1990), Russia - Cherenkov detector* Adrian Chernoff, (1971-), U.S. - GM Autonomy, GM Hy-wire, Rubber Bandits* Evgeniy Chertovsky, (1902-), Russia - pressure suit* Alexander Chizhevsky, (1897-1964), Russia - air ionizer* Andrey Chokhov, (c. 1545-1629), Russia - Tsar Cannon* Niels Christensen (1865-1952), U.S. - O-ring* Samuel Hunter Christie, (1784-1865), UK - Wheatstone bridge* Juan de la Cierva, (1895-1936), Spain - the autogyro* Alexandru Ciurcu, (1854-1922), Romania - Reaction engine* Georges Claude, (1870-1960), France - neon lamp* Henri Coandă, (1886-1972), Romania - Jet engine* Josephine Cochrane, (1839-1913), U.S. - dishwasher* Christopher Cockerell, (1910-1999), UK - Hovercraft* Aeneas Coffey, (1780-1852), Ireland - heat exchanger, Coffey still* Sir Henry Cole, (1808-1882), England - Christmas card* Samuel Colt, (1814-1862), U.S. - Revolver* George Constantinescu, (1881-1965), Romania - Interrupter gear* Lloyd Groff Copeman, (1865-1956), U.S. - Electric stove* Cornelis Corneliszoon, (1550-1607), The Netherlands - sawmill* Jacques Cousteau, (1910-1997), France - co-inventor of the aqualung and the Nikonos underwater camera* Thomas Crapper, (1836-1910), England - ballcock (toilet valve)* Bartolomeo Cristofori, (1655-1731), Italy - piano* János Csonka, (1852-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of carburetor* Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, (1725-1804), France - first steam-powered road vehicle* William Cumberland Cruikshank, (1745-1800), UK - chlorinated water* William Cullen, (1710-1790), UK - first artificial refrigerator* Glenn Curtiss, (1878-1930), U.S. - aileronsD* Gustaf Dalén, (1869-1937), Sweden - AGA cooker; Dalén light; Agamassan* Salvino D'Armate, (1258-1312), Italy - credited for inventing eyeglasses in 1284* Corradino D'Ascanio, (1891-1981), Italy - D'AT3 helicopter; Vespa scooter* Jacob Davis, (1868-1908), U.S. - riveted jeans* Edmund Davy, (1785-1857), Ireland - acetylene* Humphry Davy, (1778-1829), UK - Davy miners lamp* Joseph Day, (1855-1946), UK - the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine* Lee DeForest, (1873-1961), U.S. - triode* Vasily Degtyaryov, (1880-1949), Russia - first self-loading carbine, Degtyaryov-series firearms, co-developer of Fedorov Avtomat* Akinfiy Demidov, (1678-1745), Russia - co-developer of rebar, cast iron dome, lightning rod (all found in the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk)* Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk, (1927-2006), Russia - 3D holography* Miksa Deri (1854-1938), Hungary - co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer* James Dewar, (1842-1923), UK - Thermos flask* Aleksandr Dianin, (1851-1918), Russia - Bisphenol A, Dianin's compound* William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, (1860-1935), UK - motion picture camera* Philip Diehl, (1847-1913), U.S. - Ceiling fan, electric sewing machine* Rudolf Diesel, (1858-1913), Germany - Diesel engine* Al-Dinawari, (828-896), Persia/Iran - more than a hundred plant drugs* William H. Dobelle, (1943-2004), United States - first functioning artificial eye* Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, (1862-1919),Poland/Russia - three-phase electric power (first 3-phase hydroelectric power plant, 3-phase electrical generator, 3-phase motor and 3-phase transformer)* Nikolay Dollezhal, (1899-2000),Russia - AM-1 reactor for the 1st nuclear power plant, other RBMK reactors, VVER pressurized water reactors* Bryan Donkin, (1768-1855), UK - print industry composition roller* Hub van Doorne, (1900-1979), Netherlands, Variomatic continuously variable transmission* Anastase Dragomir, (1896-1966), Romania - Ejection seat* Karl Drais, (1785-1851), Germany - dandy horse (Draisine)* Cornelius Drebbel, (1572-1633), The Netherlands - first navigable submarine* Richard Drew, (1899-1980), U.S. - Masking tape* John Boyd Dunlop, (1840-1921) UK - first practical pneumatic tyre* Cyril Duquet, (1841-1922) Canada - Telephone handset* Alexey Dushkin, (1904-1977), Russia - deep column station* James Dyson, (1947- ) UK - Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, incorporating the principles of cyclonic separation.E* George Eastman, (1854-1932), U.S. - roll film* Thomas Edison, (1847-1931), U.S. - phonograph, commercially practical light bulb, stock ticker, ticker-tape machine etc.* Willem Einthoven, (1860-1927), The Netherlands - the electrocardiogram* Ivan Elmanov, Russia - first monorail (horse-drawn)* Rune Elmqvist, (1906-1996), Sweden - implantable pacemaker* Douglas Engelbart, (1925-), U.S. - the computer mouse [1]* John Ericsson, (1803-1889), Sweden - the two screw-propeller* Lars Magnus Ericsson, (1846-1926), Sweden - the handheld micro telephone* Ole Evinrude, (1877-1934), Norway - outboard motorF* Peter Carl Fabergé, (1846-1920), Russia - Fabergé Eggs* Samuel Face, (1923-2001), U.S. - concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch* Michael Faraday, (1791-1867), England - electric transformer, electric motor* Johann Maria Farina, (1685-1766), Germany; Eau de Cologne* Philo Farnsworth, (1906-1971), U.S. - electronic television* Muhammad al-Fazari, (d. 796/806), Persia/Iran/Iraq - brass astrolabe* James Fergason, (1934-), U.S. - improved liquid crystal display* Enrico Fermi, (1901-1954), Italy - nuclear reactor* Humberto Fernández Morán, (1924-1999), Venezuela - Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome* Reginald Fessenden, (1866-1932), Canada - two-way radio* Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick, (1829-1901), Germany - contact lens* Fatima al-Fihri, (c. 859), Tunisia/Morocco - university* Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman), (810-887), Al-Andalus - eye glasses, artificial wings, watch, fused quartz and silica glass, artificial thunder and lightning, metronome* Artur Fischer, (1919-) Germany - fasteners including fischertechnik.* Gerhard Fischer, Germany/U.S. - hand-held metal detector* Nicolas Florine, (1891-1972), Georgia/Russia/Belgium - first tandem rotor helicopter to fly freely* Robert Fulton, (1765-1815), United States - first commercially successful steamboat, first practical submarine* Alexander Fleming, (1881-1955), Scotland - penicillin* John Ambrose Fleming, (1848-1945), England - vacuum diode* Sandford Fleming, (1827-1915), Canada - Universal Standard Time* Tommy Flowers, (1905-1998), England - Colossus an early electronic computer.* Jean Bernard Léon Foucault, (1819-1868), France - Foucault pendulum, gyroscope, eddy current* Benoît Fourneyron, (1802-1867), France - water turbine* John Fowler, (1826-1864), England - steam-driven ploughing engine* Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), U.S. - the pointed lightning rod conductor, bifocal glasses, the Franklin stove, the glass harmonica* Augustin-Jean Fresnel, (1788-1827), France - Fresnel lens* William Friese-Greene, (1855-1921), England - cinematography* Buckminster Fuller, (1895-1983), U.S. - geodesic dome* Ivan Fyodorov, (c. 1510-1583), Russia/Poland-Lithuania - invented multibarreled mortar, introduced printing in Russia* Svyatoslav Fyodorov, (1927-2000), Russia - radial keratotomy* Vladimir Fyodorov, (1874-1966), Russia - Fedorov Avtomat (first self-loading battle rifle, arguably the first assault rifle)G* Dennis Gabor, (1900-1979), UK - holography* Boris Borisovich Galitzine, (1862-1916), Russia - electromagnetic seismograph* Dmitri Garbuzov, (1940-2006), Russia/U.S. - continuous-wave-operating diode lasers (together with Zhores Alferov), high-power diode lasers* Elmer R. Gates, (1859-1923), USA - foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks")* Richard J. Gatling, (1818-1903), U.S. - wheat drill, first successful machine gun* Georgy Gause, (1910-1986), Russia - gramicidin S, neomycin, lincomycin and other antibiotics* E. K. Gauzen, Russia - three bolt equipment (early diving costume)* Hans Wilhelm Geiger, (1882-1945), Germany - Geiger counter* Andrey Geim, (born 1958), Russia/United Kingdom - graphene* Nestor Genko, (1839-1904), Russia - Genko's Forest Belt (the first large-scale windbreak system)* Henri Giffard, (1825-1882), France - powered airship, injector* Valentyn Glushko, (1908-1989), Russia - hypergolic propellant, electric propulsion, Soviet rocket engines (including world's most powerful liquid-fuel rocket engine RD-170)* Heinrich Göbel, (1818-1893), Germany - incandescent lamp* Leonid Gobyato, (1875-1915), Russia - first modern man-portable mortar* Robert Goddard, (1882-1945), U.S. - liquid fuel rocket* Igor Gorynin, (1926), Russia - weldable titanium alloys, high strength aluminum alloys, radiation-hardened steels* Peter Carl Goldmark, (1906-1977), Hungary - vinyl record (LP), CBS color television* Charles Goodyear, (1800-1860), U.S. - vulcanization of rubber* Gordon Gould, (1920-2005), U.S. - co-inventor of laser* Richard Hall Gower, (1768-1833), England - ship's hull and rigging* Boris Grabovsky, (1901-1966), Russia - cathode commutator, an early electronic TV pickup tube* Bette Nesmith Graham, (1924-1980), U.S. - Liquid Paper* James Henry Greathead, (1844-1896), South Africa - tunnel boring machine, tunnelling shield technique* Chester Greenwood, (1858-1937), U.S. - thermal earmuffs* James Gregory, (1638-1675), Scotland - Gregorian telescope* William Robert Grove, (1811-1896), Wales - fuel cell* Otto von Guericke, (1602-1686), Germany - vacuum pump, manometer, dasymeter* Mikhail Gurevich, (1893-1976), Russia - MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Artem Mikoyan)* Hakan Gürsu, (c. 2007), Turkey - Volitan* Johann Gutenberg, (c. 1390s-1468), Germany - movable type printing press* Samuel Guthrie, (1782-1848), U.S. - discovered chloroformH* John Hadley, (1682-1744), England - Octant* Waldemar Haffkine, (1860-1930), Russia/Switzerland - first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines* Tracy Hall, (1919-2008 ), U.S. - synthetic diamond* Christopher Hansteen, (1783-1873), Norway - discovery of terrestrial magnetism* James Hargreaves, (1720-1778), England - spinning jenny* John Harington, (1561-1612), England - the flush toilet* John Harrison, (1693-1776), England - marine chronometer* Victor Hasselblad, (1906-1978), Sweden - invented the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera* Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), (965-1039), Iraq - camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass* Robert A. Heinlein, (1907-1988), U.S. - waterbed* Jozef Karol Hell, (1713-1789), Slovakia - the water pillar* Rudolf Hell, (1901-2002), Germany - the Hellschreiber* Joseph Henry, (1797-1878), Scotland/U.S. - electromagnetic relay* Heron, (c. 10-70), Roman Egypt - usually credited with invention of the aeolipile, although it may have been described a century earlier* John Herschel, (1792-1871), England - photographic fixer (hypo)* William Herschel, (1738-1822), England - infrared* Heinrich Hertz, (1857-1894), Germany - radio telegraphy, electromagnetic radiation* George de Hevesy, (1885-1966), Hungary - radioactive tracer* Rowland Hill, (1795-1879), UK - postage stamp* Maurice Hilleman (1919-2005) vaccines agains childhood diseases* Felix Hoffmann (Bayer), (1868-1949), Germany - Aspirin* Herman Hollerith, (1860-1929), U.S. - recording data on a machine readable medium, tabulator, punched cards* Nick Holonyak, (1928- ), U.S. - LED (Light Emitting Diode)* Robert Hooke, (1635-1703), England - balance wheel, iris diaphragm* Erna Schneider Hoover, (1926-), U.S. - computerized telephone switching system* Frank Hornby, (1863-1936), England - invented Meccano* Coenraad Johannes van Houten, (1801-1887), Netherlands - cocoa powder, cacao butter, chocolate milk* Elias Howe, (1819-1867), U.S. - sewing machine* Muhammad Husayn, (fl.17th century), Persia/Iran - cartographic Qibla indicator with sundial and compass* Christiaan Huygens, (1629-1695), Netherlands - pendulum clock* John Wesley Hyatt, (1837-1920), U.S. - celluloid manufacturing.I* Sumio Iijima, (1939- ), Japan - Carbon nanotubes* Gavriil Ilizarov, (1921-1992), Russia - Ilizarov apparatus, external fixation, distraction osteogenesis* Sergey Ilyushin, (1894-1977), Russia - Il-series aircraft, including Ilyushin Il-2 bomber (the most produced military aircraft in history)* János Irinyi, (1817-1895), Hungary - noiseless match* Aleksei Isaev, (1908-1971), Russia - first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, BI-1 (together with Isaev)J* Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber), (c. 1100-1150), Islamic Spain - portable celestial globe* Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), (c. 721-815), Persia/Iran - pure distillation, liquefaction, purification, retort, mineral acids, nitric and sulfuric acids, hydrochloric acid, aqua regia, alum, alkali, borax, pure sal ammoniac, lead carbonatic, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, pure mercury and sulfur, plated mail* Moritz von Jacobi, (1801-1874), Germany/Russia - electrotyping, electric boat* Karl Jatho, (1873-1933), Germany - aeroplane* Al-Jazari, (1136-1206), Iraq - crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pump, crank-driven screw and screwpump, elephant clock, weight-driven clock, weight-driven pump, reciprocating piston suction pump, geared and hydropowered water supply system, programmable humanoid robots, robotics, hand washing automata, flush mechanism, lamination, static balancing, paper model, sand casting, molding sand, intermittency, linkage* Ibn Al-Jazzar (Algizar), (c. 898-980), Tunisia - sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction treatment drugs* György Jendrassik, (1898-1954), Hungary - turboprop* Charles Francis Jenkins, (1867-1934) - television and movie projector (Phantoscope)* Carl Edvard Johansson, (1864-1943), Sweden - Gauge blocks* Johan Petter Johansson, (1853-1943), Sweden - the pipe wrench and the modern adjustable spanner* Nancy Johnson, U.S. - American version of the hand cranked ice cream machine in (1843)* Scott A. Jones, (1960-), U.S. - created one of the most successful versions of voicemail as well as ChaCha Search, a human-assisted internet search engine.* Whitcomb Judson, (1836-1909), U.S. - zipper[edit] K* Mikhail Kalashnikov, (1919-), Russia - AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles (the most produced ever)[1]* Dean Kamen, (1951-), U.S. - Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device* Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, (1853-1926), Netherlands - liquify helium* Nikolay Kamov, (1902-1973), Russia - armored battle autogyro, Ka-series coaxial rotor helicopters* Pyotr Kapitsa, (1894-1984), Russia - first ultrastrong magnetic field creating techniques, basic low-temperature physics inventions* Georgii Karpechenko, (1899-1941), Russia - rabbage (the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding)* Jamshīd al-Kāshī, (c. 1380-1429), Persia/Iran - plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer* Yevgeny Kaspersky, (1965-), Russia - Kaspersky Anti-Virus, Kaspersky Internet Security, Kaspersky Mobile Security anti-virus products* Adolphe Kégresse, (1879-1943), France/Russia - Kégresse track (first half-track and first off-road vehicle with continuous track), dual clutch transmission* Mstislav Keldysh, (1911-1978), Latvia/Russia - co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Tikhonravov* John Harvey Kellogg, (1852-1943), cornflake breakfasts* John George Kemeny, (1926-1992), Hungary - co-inventor of BASIC* Alexander Kemurdzhian, (1921-2003), Russia - first space exploration rover (Lunokhod)* Kerim Kerimov, (1917-2003), Azerbaijan and Russia - co-developer of human spaceflight, space dock, space station* Charles F. Kettering, (1876-1958), U.S. - invented automobile self-starter ignition, Freon ethyl gasoline and more* Khalid, (fl.9th century), Ethiopia - coffee* Fazlur Khan, (1929-1982), Bangladesh - structural systems for high-rise skyscrapers* Yulii Khariton, (1904-1996), Russia - chief designer of the Soviet atomic bomb, co-developer of the Tsar Bomb* Anatoly Kharlampiev, (1906-1979), Russia - Sambo (martial art)* Al-Khazini, (fl.1115-1130), Persia/Iran - hydrostatic balance* Konstantin Khrenov, (1894-1984), Russia - underwater welding* Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, (c. 940-1000), Persia/Iran - astronomical sextant* Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Algoritmi), (c. 780-850), Persia/Iran - modern algebra, mural instrument, horary quadrant, Sine quadrant, shadow square* Erhard Kietz, (1909-1982), Germany & U.S.A. - patented signal improvements for video transmissions Erhard Kietz Patents* Jack Kilby, (1923-2005), U.S. - patented the first integrated circuit* Al-Kindi (Alkindus), (801-873), Iraq/Yemen - ethanol, pure distilled alcohol, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis* Fritz Klatte, (1880-1934), Germany - vinyl chloride, forerunner to polyvinyl chloride* Margaret E. Knight, (1838-1914), U.S. - machine that completely constructs box-bottom brown paper bags* Ivan Knunyants, (1906-1990), Armenia/Russia - capron, Nylon 6, polyamide-6* Robert Koch, (1843-1910), Germany - method for culturing bacteria on solid media* Willem Johan Kolff, (1911-2009), Netherlands - artificial kidney hemodialysis machine* Rudolf Kompfner, (1909-1977), U.S. - Traveling-wave tube* Konstantin Konstantinov, (1817 or 1819-1871), Russia - device for measuring flight speed of projectiles, ballistic rocket pendulum, launch pad, rocket-making machine* Sergey Korolyov, (1907-1966), Ukraine/Russia - first successful intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7 Semyorka), R-7 rocket family, Sputniks (including the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite), Vostok program (including the first human spaceflight)* Nikolai Korotkov, (1874-1920), Russia - auscultatory technique for blood pressure measurement* Semen Korsakov, (1787-1853), Russia - punched card for information storage* Mikhail Koshkin, (1898-1940), Russia - T-34 medium tank, the best and most produced tank of World War II[2]* Ognjeslav Kostović, (1851-1916), Serbia/Russia - arborite (high-strength plywood, an early plastic)* Gleb Kotelnikov, (1872-1944), Russia - knapsack parachute, drogue parachute* Alexei Krylov, (1863-1945), Russia - gyroscopic damping of ships* Ivan Kulibin, (1735-1818), Russia - egg-shaped clock, candle searchlight, elevator using screw mechanisms, a self-rolling carriage featuring a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearing, an early optical telegraph* Igor Kurchatov, (1903-1960), Russia - first nuclear power plant, first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships* Raymond Kurzweil, (1948-), Optical character recognition; flatbed scanner* Stephanie Kwolek, (1923-), U.S. - Kevlar* John Howard Kyan (1774-1850), Ireland - The process of Kyanization used for wood preservationL* Dmitry Lachinov, (1842-1902), Russia - mercury pump, economizer for electricity consumption, electrical insulation tester, optical dynamometer, photometer, elecrolyser* René Laënnec, (1781-1826), France - stethoscope* Lala Balhumal Lahuri, (c. 1842), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe* Georges Lakhovsky, (1869-1942), Russia/U.S. - Multiple Wave Oscillator* Hedy Lamarr, (1913-2000), Austria and U.S. - Spread spectrum radio* Edwin H. Land, (1909-1991), U.S. - Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera* Samuel P. Langley, (1834-1906), U.S. - bolometer* Irving Langmuir, (1851-1957), U.S. - gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding* Lewis Latimer, (1848-1928), - Invented the modern day light bulb* Gustav de Laval, (1845-1913), Sweden - invented the milk separator and the milking machine* Semyon Lavochkin, (1900-1960), Russia - La-series aircraft, first operational surface-to-air missile S-25 Berkut* John Bennet Lawes, (1814-1900), England - superphosphate or chemical fertilizer* Nikolai Lebedenko, Russia - Tsar Tank, the largest armored vehicle in history* Sergei Lebedev, (1874-1934), Russia - commercially viable synthetic rubber* Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, (1632-1723), Netherlands - development of the microscope* Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir, (1822-1900), Belgium - internal combustion engine, motorboat* R. G. LeTourneau, (1888-1969), U.S.- electric wheel, motor scraper, mobile oil drilling platform, bulldozer, cable control unit for scrapers* Willard Frank Libby, (1908-1980), U.S. - radiocarbon dating* Justus von Liebig, (1803-1873), Germany - nitrogen-based fertilizer* Otto Lilienthal, (1848-1896), Germany - hang glider* Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist, (1862-1931), Sweden - Kerosene stove operated by compressed air* Hans Lippershey, (1570-1619), Netherlands - telescope* Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich, Russia - samovar (the first documented makers)* William Howard Livens, (1889-1964), England - chemical warfare - Livens Projector.* Alexander Lodygin, (1847-1923), Russia - electrical filament, incandescent light bulb with tungsten filament* Mikhail Lomonosov, (1711-1765), Russia - night vision telescope, off-axis reflecting telescope, coaxial rotor, re-invented smalt* Yury Lomonosov, (1876-1952), Russia/United Kingdom - first successful mainline diesel locomotive* Aleksandr Loran, (1849 - after 1911), Russia - fire fighting foam, foam extinguisher* Oleg Losev, (1903-1942), Russia - light-emitting diode, crystadine* Archibald Low, (1882-1956), Britain - Pioneer of radio guidance systems* Auguste and Louis Lumière, France - Cinématographe* Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy, (1909-2001), Russia - Buran (spacecraft), Spiral project* Ignacy Łukasiewicz, (1822-1882), Poland - modern kerosene lamp* Giovanni Luppis, (1813-1875), Austrian Empire (ethnical Italian) - self-propelled torpedo* Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman, (fl.1589-1590), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe* Arkhip Lyulka, (1908-1984), Russia - first double jet turbofan engine, other Soviet aircraft enginesM* Ma Jun, (c. 200-265), China - South Pointing Chariot (see differential gear), mechanical puppet theater, chain pumps, improved silk looms* Aleksandr Makarov, Russia/Germany - Orbitrap mass spectrometer* Stepan Makarov, (1849-1904), Russia - Icebreaker Yermak, the first true icebreaker able to ride over and crush pack ice* Nestor Makhno, (1888-1934), Ukraine/Russia - tachanka* Charles Macintosh, (1766-1843), Scotland - waterproof raincoat, life vest* Victor Makeev, (1924-1985), Russia - first submarine-launched ballistic missile* Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov, (1896-1964), Russia - Maksutov telescope* Sergey Malyutin, (1859-1937), Russia - designed the first matryoshka doll (together with Vasily Zvyozdochkin)* Al-Ma'mun, (786-833), Iraq - singing bird automata, terrestrial globe* Boris Mamyrin, (1919-2007), Russia - reflectron (ion mirror)* George William Manby, (1765-1854), England - Fire extinguisher* Guglielmo Marconi, (1874-1937), Italy - radio telegraphy* John Landis Mason, (1826-1902), U.S. - Mason jars* Henry Maudslay, (1771-1831), England - screw-cutting lathe, bench micrometer* Hiram Maxim, (1840-1916), USA born, England - First self-powered machine gun* James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and Thomas Sutton Scotland - color photography* Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, (9th century), Iraq - syringe, hypodermic needle, cataract extraction, injection, suction* John McAdam, (1756-1836), Scotland - improved "macadam" road surface* Elijah McCoy, (1843-1929), Canada - Displacement lubricator* Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, (1845-1916), Russia - probiotics* Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés, (1817-1880), France - margarine* Dmitri Mendeleev, (1834-1907), Russia - Periodic table, pycnometer, pyrocollodion, also credited with determining the ideal vodka proof as 38% (later rounded to 40%)* Antonio Meucci, (1808-1889), Italy - telephone (prototype)* Edouard Michelin, (1859-1940), France - pneumatic tire* Anthony Michell, (1870-1959), Australia - tilting pad thrust bearing, crankless engine* Artem Mikoyan, (1905-1970), Armenia/Russia - MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Mikhail Gurevich)* Alexander Mikulin, (1895-1985), Russia - Mikulin AM-34 and other Soviet aircraft engines, co-developer of the Tsar Tank* Mikhail Mil, (1909-1970), Russia - Mi-series helicopter aircraft, including Mil Mi-8 (the world's most-produced helicopter) and Mil Mi-12 (the world's largest helicopter)* Pavel Molchanov, (1893-1941), Russia - radiosonde* Jules Montenier, (c. 1910), U.S. - modern anti-perspirant deodorant* Montgolfier brothers, (1740-1810) and (1745-1799), France - hot-air balloon* John J. Montgomery, (1858-1911), U.S. - heavier-than-air gliders* Narcis Monturiol i Estarriol, (1819-1885), Spain - steam powered submarine* Robert Moog, (1934-2005), U.S. - the Moog synthesizer* Samuel Morey, (1762-1843), U.S. - internal combustion engine* Garrett A. Morgan, (1877-1963), U.S. - inventor of the gas mask, and traffic signal.* Samuel Morse, (1791-1872), U.S. - telegraph* Alexander Morozov, (1904-1979), Russia - T-54/55 (the most produced tank in history), co-developer of T-34* Sergei Ivanovich Mosin, (1849-1902), Russia - Mosin-Nagant rifle* Motorins, Ivan Feodorovich (1660s - 1735) and his son Mikhail Ivanovich (?-1750), Russia - Tsar Bell* Vera Mukhina, (1889-1953), Russia - welded sculpture* Al-Muqaddasi, (c. 946-1000), Palestine - restaurant* Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi, (fl.11th century), Islamic Spain - geared mechanical clock, segmental gear, epicyclic gearing* William Murdoch, (1754-1839), Scotland - Gas lighting* Jozef Murgas, (1864-1929), Slovakia - inventor of the wireless telegraph (forerunner of the radio)* Evgeny Murzin, (1914-1970), Russia - ANS synthesizer* Banū Mūsā brothers, Muhammad (c. 800-873), Ahmad (803-873), Al-Hasan (810-873), Iraq - mechanical trick devices, hurricane lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamp, gas mask, clamshell grab, fail-safe system, mechanical musical instrument, automatic flute player, programmable machine* Pieter van Musschenbroek, (1692-1761), Netherlands - Leyden jar, pyrometer* Eadweard Muybridge, (1830-1904), England - motion pictureN* Alexander Nadiradze, (1914-1987), Georgia/Russia - first mobile ICBM (RT-21 Temp 2S), first reliable mobile ICBM (RT-2PM Topol)* John Napier, (1550-1617), Scotland - logarithms* James Naismith, (1861-1939), Canadian born, USA - invented basketball and American football helmet* Yoshiro Nakamatsu, (b. 1928), Japan - floppy disk, "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter* Andrey Nartov, (1683-1756), Russia - first lathe with a mechanic cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears, fast-fire battery on a rotating disc, screw mechanism for changing the artillery fire angle, gauge-boring lathe for cannon-making, early telescopic sight* James Nasmyth, (1808-1890), Scotland - steam hammer* Nebuchadrezzar II, (c. 630-562 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw, screwpump* Sergey Nepobedimiy, (1921-), Russia - first supersonic anti-tank guided missile Sturm, other Soviet rocket weaponry* John von Neumann, (1903-1957), Hungary - Von Neumann computer architecture* Isaac Newton,(1642-1727), England - reflecting telescope (which reduces chromatic aberration)* Joseph Nicephore Niépce, (1765-1833), France - photography* Nikolai Nikitin, (1907-1973), Russia - prestressed concrete with wire ropes structure (Ostankino Tower), Nikitin-Travush 4000 project (precursor to X-Seed 4000)* Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, (1860-1940), Germany - Nipkow disk* Jun-Ichi Nishizawa, (1926-), Japan - Optical communication system, SIT/SITh (Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor), Laser diode, PIN diode* Alfred Nobel, (1833-1896), Sweden - dynamite* Ludvig Nobel, (1831-1888), Sweden/Russia - first successful oil tanker* Carl Rickard Nyberg, (1858-1939), Sweden - the blowtorchO* Theophil Wilgodt Odhner, (1845-1903), Sweden/Russia - the Odhner Arithmometer, a mechanical calculator* Lucien Olivier, (1838-1883), Belgium or France / Russia - Russian salad (Olivier salad)* J. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904-1967), United States - Atomic bomb* Edward Otho Cresap Ord, II, (1858-1923) American - weapon sights & mining* Hans Christian Ørsted, (1777-1851), Denmark - electromagnetism, aluminum* Elisha Otis, (1811-1861), U.S. - passenger elevator with safety device* William Oughtred, (1575-1660), England - slide ruleP* Larry Page, (1973-), U.S. - with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine* Alexey Pajitnov, (born 1956), Russia/U.S. - Tetris* Helge Palmcrantz, (1842-1880), Sweden - the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun* Daniel David Palmer, (1845-1913), Canada - chiropractic* Luigi Palmieri, (1807-1896), Italy - seismometer* Alexander Parkes, (1831-1890), England - celluloid* Charles Algernon Parsons, (1854-1931), British - steam turbine* Spede Pasanen, (1930-2001), Finland - ski jumping sling* Blaise Pascal, (1623-1662), France - barometer, Pascal's calculator* Gustaf Erik Pasch, (1788-1862), Sweden - safety match* Les Paul, (1915-2009), U.S. - multitrack recording* Nicolae Paulescu, (1869-1931), Romania - insulin* Ivan Pavlov, (1849-1936), Russia, - classical conditioning* Arthur Paul Pedrick, England - chromatically selective cat flap and others* John Pemberton, (1831-1888), U.S. - Coca-Cola* Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, (1871-1922), Croatia - mechanical pencil* Henry Perky, (1843-1906), U.S. - shredded wheat* Stephen Perry, England - rubber band* Vladimir Petlyakov, (1891-1942), Russia - heavy bomber* Peter Petroff, (1919-2004), Bulgaria - digital wrist watch, heart monitor, weather instruments* Fritz Pfleumer, (1881-1945), Germany - magnetic tape* Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov, (1810-1881), Russia - early use of ether as anaesthetic, first anaesthesia in a field operation, various kinds of surgical operations* Fyodor Pirotsky, (1845-1898), Russia - electric tram* Arthur Pitney, (1871-1933), United States - postage meter* Joseph Plateau, (1801-1883), Belgium - phenakistiscope (stroboscope)* Baltzar von Platen, (1898-1984), Sweden - gas absorption refrigerator* James Leonard Plimpton, U.S. - roller skates* Ivan Plotnikov, (1902-1995), Russia - kirza leather* Petrache Poenaru, (1799-1875), Romania - fountain pen* Christopher Polhem, (1661-1751), Sweden - the modern padlock* Nikolai Polikarpov, (1892-1944), Russia - Po-series aircraft, including Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik (world's most produced biplane)* Ivan Polzunov, (1728-1766), Russia - first two-cylinder steam engine* Mikhail Pomortsev, (1851-1916), Russia - nephoscope* Olivia Poole, (1889-1975), U.S., - the Jolly Jumper baby harness* Alexander Popov, (1859-1906), Russia - lightning detector (the first lightning prediction system and radio receiver), co-inventor of radio* Nikolay Popov, (1931-2008), Russia - first fully gas turbine main battle tank (T-80)* Aleksandr Porokhovschikov, (1892-1941), Russia - Vezdekhod (the first prototype tank, or tankette, and the first caterpillar amphibious ATV)* Joseph Priestley, (1733-1804), England - soda water* Alexander Procofieff de Seversky, 1894-1974, Russia/United States of America - first gyroscopically stabilized bombsight, ionocraft, also developed air-to-air refueling* Alexander Prokhorov, (1916-2002), Russia - co-inventor of laser and maser* Petro Prokopovych, (1775-1850), Ukraine/Russia - early beehive frame, queen excluder and other beekeeping novelties* Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, (1863-1944), Russia/France - early colour photography method based on three colour channels, also colour film slides and colour motion pictures* George Pullman, (1831-1897), U.S. - Pullman sleep wagon* Michael I. Pupin, (1858-1935), Serbia - pupinization (loading coils), tunable oscillator* Tivadar Puskas, (1844-1893), Hungary - telephone exchange[edit] R* Mario Rabinowitz, (1936-), U.S. - solar concentrator with tracking micromirrors* Hasan al-Rammah, (fl.1270s), Syria - purified potassium nitrate, explosive gunpowder, torpedo* Harun al-Rashid, (763-809), Persia/Iran - public hospital, medical school* Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), (865-965), Persia/Iran - distillation and extraction methods, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide* Karl von Reichenbach, (1788-1869), paraffin, creosote oil, phenol* Ira Remsen, (1846-1927), U.S. - saccharin* Ralf Reski, (* 1958), Germany - Moss Bioreactor 1998* Josef Ressel, (1793-1857), Czechoslovakia - ship propeller* Charles Francis Richter, (1900-1985), U.S. - Richter magnitude scale* Hyman George Rickover, (1900-1986), U.S. - Nuclear submarine* John Roebuck, (1718-1794) England - lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis* Peter I the Great, Tsar and Emperor of Russia, (1672-1725), Russia - decimal currency, yacht club, sounding line with separating plummet (sounding weight probe)* Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, (1845-1923), Germany - the X-ray machine* Ida Rosenthal, (1886-1973), Belarus/Russia/United States - modern brassiere (Maidenform), the standard of cup sizes, nursing bra, full-figured bra, the first seamed uplift bra (all with her husband William)* Boris Rosing, (1869-1933), Russia - CRT television (first TV system using CRT on the receiving side)* Eugene Roshal, (born 1972), Russia - FAR file manager, RAR file format, WinRAR file archiver* Ernő Rubik, (1944-), Hungary - Rubik's cube, Rubik's Magic and Rubik's Clock* Ernst Ruska, (1906-1988), Germany - electron microscopeS* Alexander Sablukov, (1783-1857), Russia - centrifugal fan* Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, (1385-1468), Turkey - illustrated surgical atlas* Andrei Sakharov, (1921-1989), Russia - invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomb and tokamak* Ibn Samh, (c. 1020), Middle East - mechanical geared astrolabe* Franz San Galli, (1824-1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) - radiator, modern central heating* Alberto Santos-Dumont, (1873-1932), Brazil - non-rigid airship and airplane* Arthur William Savage, (1857-1938) - radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle* Thomas Savery, (1650-1715), England - steam engine* Adolphe Sax, (1814-1894), Belgium - saxophone* Bela Schick, (1877-1967), Hungary - diphtheria test* Pavel Schilling, (1780-1836), Estonia/Russia - first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse* Christian Schnabel (1878-1936), German - simplistic food cutleries* Kees A. Schouhamer Immink (1946- ), Netherlands - Major contributor to development of Compact Disc* August Schrader, U.S. - Schrader valve for Pneumatic tire* David Schwarz, (1852-1897), Croatia, - rigid ship, later called Zeppelin* Marc Seguin, (1786-1875), France - wire-cable suspension bridge* Henry White Seeley, (1832-1903), US-pressing iron* Sennacherib, (705-681 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw pump* Iwan Serrurier, (active 1920s), Netherlands/U.S. - inventor of the Moviola for film editing* Mark Serrurier, (190?-1988), U.S. - Serrurier truss for Optical telescopes* Gerhard Sessler, (1931-), Germany - foil electret microphone, silicon microphone* Guy Severin, (1926-2008), Russia - extra-vehicular activity supporting system* Leonty Shamshurenkov, (1687-1758), Russia - first self-propelling carriage (a precursor to both bicycle and automobile), projects of an original odometer and self-propelling sledge* Ibn al-Shatir, (1304-1375), Syria - "jewel box" device which combined a compass with a universal sundial* Shen Kuo, (1031-1095), China - improved gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra, and sighting tube* Murasaki Shikibu, (c. 973-1025), Japan - novel, psychological novel* Pyotr Shilovsky, (1871 - after 1924), Russia/United Kingdom - gyrocar* Fathullah Shirazi, (c. 1582), Mughal India - autocannon, multi-barrel gun* William Bradford Shockley, (1910-1989), U.S. - co-inventor of transistor* Henry Shrapnel, (1761-1842), England - Shrapnel shell ammunition* Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, (b. 1972), Malaysia - cell growth in outer space, crystallization of proteins and microbes in space* Vladimir Shukhov, (1853-1939), Russia - thermal cracking (Shukhov cracking process), thin-shell structure, tensile structure, hyperboloid structure, gridshell, modern oil pipeline, cylindric oil depot* Augustus Siebe, (1788-1872), Germany/England - Inventor of the standard diving dress* Werner von Siemens, (1816-1892), Germany - an electromechanical "dynamic"* Sir William Siemens, (1823-1883), Germany - regenerative furnace* Al-Sijzi, (c. 945-1020), Persia/Iran - heliocentric astrolabe* Igor Sikorsky, (1889-1972), Russia/U.S. - first four-engine fixed-wing aircraft (Russky Vityaz), first airliner and purpose-designed bomber (Ilya Muromets), modern helicopter, Sikorsky-series helicopters* Kia Silverbrook, (1958-), Australia - Memjet printer, world's most prolific inventor* Vladimir Simonov, (born 1935), Russia - APS Underwater Assault Rifle, SPP-1 underwater pistol* Charles Simonyi, (1948-), Hungary - Hungarian notation* Ibn Sina (Avicenna), (973-1037), Persia/Iran - steam distillation, essential oil, pharmacopoeia, clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, quarantine, cancer surgery, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, phytotherapy, Hindiba, Taxus baccata L, calcium channel blocker* Isaac Singer, (1811-1875), U.S. - sewing machine* Nikolay Slavyanov, (1854-1897), Russia - shielded metal arc welding* Alexander Smakula, (1900-1983), Ukraine/Russia/U.S. - anti-reflective coating* Yefim Smolin, Russia - table-glass (stakan granyonyi)* Igor Spassky, (1926-), Russia - Sea Launch platform* Elmer Ambrose Sperry, (1860-1930), U.S. - gyroscope-guided automatic pilot* Ladislas Starevich, (1882-1965), Russia/France - puppet animation, live-action/animated film* Boris Stechkin, (1891-1969), Russia - co-developer of Sikorsky Ilya Muromets and Tsar Tank, developer of Soviet heat and aircraft engines* George Stephenson, (1781-1848), England - steam railway* Simon Stevin, (1548-1620), Netherlands - land yacht* Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790-1878), Scotland - Stirling engine* Aurel Stodola, (1859-1942), Slovakia - gas turbines* Aleksandr Stoletov, (1839-1896), Russia - first solar cell based on the outer photoelectric effect* Levi Strauss, (1829-1902), U.S. - blue jeans* John Stringfellow, (1799-1883), England - airplane* Almon Strowger, (1839-1902), U.S. - automatic telephone exchange* Su Song, (1020-1101), China - first chain drive* Pavel Sukhoi, (1895-1975), Russia - Su-series fighter aircraft* Simon Sunatori, (1959-), Canada - inventor of MagneScribe and Magic Spicer* Sushruta, (600 BC), Vedic India - inventor of Platic Surgery, Cataract Surgery, Rhinoplasty* Joseph Swan, (1828-1914), England - Incandescent light bulb* Percy Spencer, (1894-1970), U.S. - microwave oven* Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), (903-986), Persia/Iran - timekeeping astrolabe, navigational astrolabe, surveying astrolabe* Robert Swanson, (1905-1994), Canada - Invented and developed the first multi-chime air horn for use with diesel locomotives* Andrei Sychra, (1773-76 - 1850), Lithuania/Russia, Czech descent - Russian seven-string guitar* Vladimir Syromyatnikov, (1933-2006), Russia - Androgynous Peripheral Attach System and other spacecraft docking mechanisms* Leó Szilárd, (1898-1964), Hungary/U.S. - Co-developed the atomic bomb, patented the nuclear reactor, catalyst of the Manhattan ProjectT* Salih Tahtawi, (fl.1659-1660), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe* Igor Tamm, (1895-1971), Russia - co-developer of tokamak* Taqi al-Din, (1526-1585), Syria/Egypt/Turkey - steam turbine, six-cylinder 'Monobloc' suction pump, framed sextant* Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi, (c. 1187), Middle East - counterweight trebuchet, mangonel* Bernard Tellegen, (1900-1990), Netherlands - pentode* Edward Teller, (1908-2003), Hungary - hydrogen bomb* Nikola Tesla, (1856-1943), Croatian Serb, citizenship:Austrian Empire (pre-1891), American (post-1891) - Tesla Coil, induction motor, wireless communication* Léon Theremin, (1896-1993), Russia - theremin, interlace, burglar alarm, terpsitone, Rhythmicon (first drum machine), The Thing (listening device)* Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, (1785-1870), France - Arithmometer* Eric Tigerstedt, (1887-1925), Finland - triode vacuum tube* Kalman Tihanyi, (1897-1947), Hungary - co-inventor of cathode ray tube and iconoscope* Mikhail Tikhonravov, (1900-1974), Russia - co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Keldysh, designer of further Sputniks* Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov, (1875-1960), Russia - feathering spectrograph* Benjamin Chew Tilghman, (1821-1897), U.S. - sandblasting* Tipu Sultan, (1750-1799), India - iron-cased rocket* Fedor Tokarev, (1871-1968), Russia - TT-33 semiautomatic handgun and SVT-40 self-loading rifle* Alfred Traeger, (1895-1980), Australia - the pedal radio* Richard Trevithick, (1771-1833), England - high-pressure steam engine, first full-scale steam locomotive* Franc Trkman, (1903-1978), Slovenia - electrical switches, accessories for opening windows* Yuri Trutnev, (1927-), Russia - co-developer of the Tsar Bomb* Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, (1857-1935), Russia - spaceflight* Mikhail Tsvet, (1872-1919), Russia - chromatography (specifically adsorption chromatography, the first chromatography method)* Ibn Tufail, (c. 1105-1185), Islamic Spain - philosophical novel* Alexei Tupolev, (1925-2001), Russia - the Tupolev Tu-144 (first supersonic passenger jet)* Andrei Tupolev, (1888-1972), Russia - turboprop powered long-range airliner (Tupolev Tu-114), turboprop strategic bomber (Tupolev Tu-95)* Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1201-1274), Persia/Iran - observatory, research institute* Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1135-1213), Persia/Iran - linear astrolabeU* Lewis Urry, (1927-2004), Canada - long-lasting alkaline battery* Vladimir Utkin, (1923-2000), Russia - railcar-launched ICBM (RT-23 Molodets)V* Vladimir Sergeyevich Vakhmistrov, (1897-1972), Russia - first bomber with a parasite aircraft (Zveno project)* Theophilus Van Kannel, (1841-1919), United States - revolving door (1888)* Viktor Vasnetsov, (1848-1926), Russia - budenovka military hat* Vladimir Veksler, (1907-1966), Russia - synchrophasotron, co-inventor of synchrotron* John Venn, (1834-1923), England - Venn diagram (1881)* Pierre Vernier, (1580-1637), France - vernier scale (1631)* Dmitry Vinogradov, (c.1720-5 - 1758), Russia - original Russian hard-paste porcelain (together with Mikhail Lomonosov)* Louis R. Vitullo, (1924?-2006), United States - developed the first sexual assault evidence kit* Alessandro Volta, (1745-1827), Italy - battery* Faust Vrančić, (1551-1617), Croatia - parachute* Traian Vuia, (1872-1950), Romania - designed, built, and tested one of the earlier aircraft in 1906. Vuia reportedly flew to a height of 1 Meter and was able to stay aloft for 20 Meters.* Ivan Vyrodkov, (? - 1563-64), Russia - battery tower[edit] W* Paul Walden, (1863-1957), Latvia/Russia/Germany - Walden inversion, Ethylammonium nitrate (the first room temperature ionic liquid)* Barnes Wallis, (1887-1979), England - bouncing bomb* Robert Watson-Watt, (1892-1973), Scotland - microwave radar* James Watt, (1736-1819), Scotland - improved Steam engine* Thomas Wedgwood, (1771-1805), England - first (not permanent) photograph* Jonas Wenström, (1855-1893), Sweden - three-phase electrical power* George Westinghouse, (1846-1914), U.S. - Air brake (rail)* Charles Wheatstone, (1802-1875), England - concertina, stereoscope, microphone, Playfair cipher* Eli Whitney, (1765-1825), U.S. - the cotton gin* Frank Whittle, (1907-1996), England - co-inventor of the jet engine* Otto Wichterle, (1913-1989), Czechoslovakia - invented modern contact lenses* Paul Winchell, (1922-2005), U.S. - the artificial heart* A. Baldwin Wood, (1879-1956), U.S. - high volume pump* Granville Woods, (1856-1910), U.S. - the Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph* Wright brothers, Orville (1871-1948) and Wilbur (1867-1912) - U.S. - powered airplane* Arthur Wynne, (1862-1945), England - creator of crossword puzzleY* Pavel Yablochkov, (1847-1894), Russia - Yablochkov candle (first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp)* Hidetsugu Yagi, (1886-1976), Japan - Yagi antenna* Alexander Yakovlev, (1906-1989), Russia - Yak-series aircraft, including Yakovlev Yak-40 (the first regional jet)* Khalid ibn Yazid, (635-704), Syria/Egypt - potassium nitrate* Yi Xing, (683-727), China - astronomical clock* Gazi Yasargil, (1925- ), Turkey - Microneurosurgery* Arthur M. Young, (1905-1995), U.S. - the Bell Helicopter* Vladimir Yourkevitch, (1885-1964), Russia/France/U.S. - modern ship hull design* Sergei Yudin, (1891-1954), Russia - cadaveric blood transfusion and other medical operations* Muhammad Yunus, (b. 1940), Bangladesh - microcredit, microfinance* Abu Yaqub Yusuf, (c. 1274), Morocco/Spain - siege cannon* Linus Yale, Jr., (1821-1868), U.S. - cylinder lock* Linus Yale, Sr., (1797-1858), U.S. - pin tumbler lockZ* Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), (936-1013), Islamic Spain - catgut surgical suture, various surgical instruments and dental devices* Alexander Zalmanov, (1875-1965), Russia - turpentine bath* Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof, (1859-1917) Russia/Poland - Esperanto* Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel), (1028-1087), Islamic Spain - almanac, equatorium, universal astrolabe* Yevgeny Zavoisky, (1907-1976), Russia - EPR spectroscopy, co-developer of NMR spectroscopy* Nikolay Zelinsky, (1861-1953), Russia - the first effective filtering coal gas mask in the world* Zhang Heng, (78-139), China - invented the first hydraulic-powered armillary sphere* Zheng He, (1371-1433), China - treasure ship* Nikolai Zhukovsky, (1847-1921), Russia - an early wind tunnel, co-developer of the Tsar Tank* Ziryab, (789-857), Iraq/Syria/Tunisia/Spain - bangs, beauty parlour, cosmetology school, chemical depilatory, toothpaste, under-arm deodorant, three-course meal* Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), (1091-1161), Islamic Spain - general anaesthesia, general anaesthetic, oral anesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic, narcotic-soaked sponge, tracheotomy, parasitology, pharmacopoeia* Konrad Zuse, (22 June 1910-18 December 1995), Germany - invented the first Computer (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4)* Vasily Zvyozdochkin, (1876-1956), Russia - matryoshka doll (together with Sergey Malyutin)* Vladimir Zworykin, (1889-1982), Russia/U.S. - Iconoscope, kinescope.

What was the history of Islam during its first 100 years?

This was the golden period of not only of Islam also of whole humanity. The Muslim rulers (HALIFAH) give peace, education, Justice equally, and all happiness to mankind. The Islamic Golden Age or the Islamic Renaissance, is traditionally dated from the 9th to 13th centuries C.E., for 400 years but has been extended to the 15th century by recent scholarship. During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders in theIslamic worldcontributed to the arts,agriculture, economics,industry, law,literature,navigation,philosophy,sciences, sociology, andtechnology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own. Howard R. Turner writes: "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent.Contents[hide] 1 Foundations 1.1 Ethics1.2 Institutions1.3 Polymaths2 Economy 2.1 Age of discovery2.2 Agricultural Revolution2.3 Market economy2.4 Industrial growth2.5 Labour2.6 Technology2.7 Urbanization3 Sciences 3.1 Scientific method3.2 Peer review3.3 Astronomy3.4 Chemistry3.5 Mathematics3.6 Medicine3.7 Physics3.8 Other sciences4 Other achievements 4.1 Architecture4.2 Arts4.3 Literature4.4 Music4.5 Philosophy5 End of the Golden Age 5.1 Mongol invasion and Turkic settlement5.2 Causes of decline6 Notes7 See also8 References9 External links[edit]FoundationsFurther information: Early reforms under Islam and Muslim conquests Age of the Caliphs Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632 Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries, Rashidun armiesestablished the Caliphate, or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history. TheIslamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city Baghdad. The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became the unrivaled intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge. They established the "House of Wisdom" (Arabic:بيت الحكمة) in Baghdad, where scholars, both Muslim and non-Muslim, sought to gather and translate all the world's knowledge into Arabic in the Translation Movement. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been forgotten were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish,Persian, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Mesopotamian,Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine civilizations. Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.[6]A major innovation of this period was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. The art ofpapermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper millsbeing built in the Islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes. By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even public libraries began to become established, including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to Fez and then to al-Andalus and from there to Europe in the 13th century.[7]Much of this learning and development can be linked to topography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca served as a center of trade in Arabia. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the Indian subcontinent now has over 450 million followers), South-east Asia (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included: Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia, East Asia and South-east Asia.[8][9][edit]EthicsMain articles: Islamic ethics and Early reforms under IslamFurther information: Islamic democracy and Constitution of MedinaMany medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search forknowledge, meaning and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history andphilosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas ofindividualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism.[10][11]Religious freedom, though society was still controlled under Islamic values, helped create cross-culturalnetworks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries.[6] Another reason the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason:[12]"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Qur'an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be upon you and the blessings of God!"The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especiallypollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna,Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities.[13] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the firstwaste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.[14][edit]InstitutionsFurther information: Madrasah, Bimaristan, Islamic astronomy, Sharia, Fiqh, and Islamic economics in the worldA number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the early Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital(which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[15] and psychiatric hospital,[16] the public library andlending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute[15] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times).[17]The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century.[18] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[19] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris WA 'l-ifttd("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law.[20]By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books. In the whole al-Andalus, 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year.[21] The library of Cairo had two million books,[22] while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. The number of important and original medieval Arabic works on the mathematical sciences far exceeds the combined total of medieval Latin and Greek works of comparable significance, although only a small fraction of the surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied in modern times.[23] For instance, Jamil Ragip, anhistorian of science from McGill University, says that 'less than 5% of the available material has been studied.'[24] A Russian historian gives an idea of the numerical quantity of these manuscripts and works always findable:"The results of the Arab scholars' literary activities are reflected in the enormous amount of works (about some hundred thousand) and manuscripts (not less than 5 million) which were current... These figures are so imposing that only the printed epoch presents comparable materials"[25]A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.[26]Several fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions inIslamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the Emirate of Sicily, and by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the IslamicLafif." Other legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust(Waqf),[27][28] the agency and aval (Hawala),[29] and the lawsuit and medical peer review.[30] Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".[20][edit]PolymathsAnother common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymathscholars, who were known as "Hakeems", each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later "Renaissance Men" (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period.[31][32] During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning.[31] Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Ibn Sina (Latinized: Avicenna),al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd (Latinized: Averroes), al-Suyuti,[33] Geber,[34] Abbas Ibn Firnas,[35] Alhacen,[36] Ibn al-Nafis,[37] Ibn Khaldun,[38] al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, andNasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī.[31][edit]Economy[edit]Age of discoveryMain article: Islamic geographySee also: Islamic economics in the world, Inventions in the Muslim world, Ibn Battuta, and Pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theoriesThe Islamic Empire significantly contributed to globalization during the Islamic Golden Age, when theknowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders, and travelers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery", in reference to the Southwest Asian and North African traders and explorers (though mostly Muslims, some were also JewishRadhanites) who travelled most of the Old World, and established an early global economy[39] across most of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east.[40] This helped establish the Islamic Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.[39] Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from al-Andalus and theMaghreb may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean between the 9th and 14th centuries.[41][edit]Agricultural RevolutionMain article: Muslim Agricultural RevolutionThe valve-operatedreciprocating suction piston pumpwith crankshaft-connecting rodmechanism invented by al-Jazari in the 12th century.The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation inagriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution" or "Arab Agricultural Revolution".[42] Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World, this enabled the diffusion of many plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops fromIndia such as mangos, rice, and especially cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.[43] Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops",[44]which, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture (seeIndustrial growth below), led to major changes in economy,population distribution, vegetation cover,[45] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of thelabour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[43]During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. The Arabs andBerbers diffused sugar throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.[46]Muslims introduced cash cropping[47] and the modern crop rotation system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq.[43] Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Numerous encyclopaedias on farming and botany were produced, containing accurate, precise detail.[48][edit]Market economyMain article: Islamic economics in the worldEarly forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[49] where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[50] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetaryareas that were previously independent. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organisation were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included early trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships(mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[47] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[51] trusts (waqf),startup companies,[52] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates,bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[53]and lawsuits.[30] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[54][55] Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[47]The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell oncommission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds ofkinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a bank in Baghdad and cashed in Spain, creating the cheque system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system.Though medieval Islamic economics appears to have been closer to proto-capitalism, some scholars have also found a number of parallels between Islamic economic jurisprudence and communism, including the Islamic ideas of zakat and riba.[56][edit]Industrial growthFurther information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) introduced the experimental methodto chemistry. He established thechemical industry and perfumeryindustry. Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovativeindustrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[57] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[58] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills,stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to theMiddle East and Central Asia.[59] Muslim engineers also inventedcrankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[46] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour inancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[60]A number of industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies,clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles,water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron. Early large factorycomplexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century byEgyptian craftsmen in Greece.[61] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[40][edit]LabourFurther information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - LabourThe labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[62] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[63] in the primary sector (asfarmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[64]Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry.[63]During the Arab slave trade, slaves were purchased on the frontiers of the Islamic world and then imported to the major centers, where there were slave markets from which they were widely distributed.[65][66][67] Slaves occupied an important place in the economic life of Islamic world.[68][69]Large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa to work in salt mines and labour-intensiveplantations; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century.[70]Slaves were also used for domestic work,[71] military service,[72] and civil administration.[73] Central andEastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e. Slavs), while slaves from Central Asiaand the Caucasus were often known as Mamluk.[74][edit]TechnologyMain articles: Inventions in the Muslim world, Muslim Agricultural Revolution, and Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineersThe programmable automata ofal-Jazari.A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, theBanū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari.Some of the inventions believed to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, tooth paste, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallization,purification, oxidization, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized waterclocks, quilting, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis,frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial globe.[75][edit]UrbanizationFurther information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: UrbanizationAs urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets andneighbourhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods[citation needed] to and from major commercial centres while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, military training grounds were found near a main gate.Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains,piped drinking water supplies,[76] and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities.[77] By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries.[21]The average life expectancy in the lands under Islamic rule also experienced an increase, due to the Agricultural Revolution as well as improved medical care. In contrast to the average lifespan in the ancient Greco-Roman world (22-28 years),[78][79] the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate was more than 35 years.[80] The average lifespans of the Islamic scholarly class in particular was much higher: 84.3 years in 10th-11th century Iraq and Persia,[81] 72.8 years in the 11th century Middle East, 69-75 years in 11th century Islamic Spain,[82] 75 years in 12th century Persia,[83] and 59-72 years in 13th century Persia.[84] The Islamic Empire also experienced a growth in literacy, having the highest literacy rate of the Middle Ages, comparable to Athens' literacy in classical antiquity but on a larger scale.[85][edit]SciencesMain article: Islamic scienceFurther information: Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe, Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world, and List of Muslim scientistsThe traditional view of Islamic science was that it was chiefly a preserver and transmitter of ancient knowledge.[86] For example, Donald Lach argues that modern science originated in Europe as an amalgam of medieval technology and Greek learning.[87] These views have been disputed in recent times, with some scholars suggesting that Muslim scientists laid the foundations for modernscience,[88][89][90][91][92] for their development of early scientific methods and an empirical, experimentaland quantitative approach to scientific inquiry.[93] Some scholars have referred to this period as a "Muslim scientific revolution",[4][94][95][96] a term which expresses the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim scientific achievements,[97] and should not to be confused with the early modernEuropean Scientific Revolution leading to the rise of modern science.[98][99][100] Edward Grant argues that modern science was due to the cumulative efforts of the Hellenic, Islamic and Latin civilizations.[101][edit]Scientific methodFurther information: Islamic science: Scientific methodEarly scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered the pioneer of experimental physics.[93][102] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light raysentering the eye, and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.[103][104]Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,[105] and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception[106][107] is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology.[108][edit]Peer reviewThe earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of physicians investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in theEthics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854-931) of al-Raha in Syria. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.[30] The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and Observations published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731. The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process.[109][edit]AstronomyMain article: Islamic astronomyFurther information: Maragheh observatory, Islamic astrology, List of Muslim astronomers, and List of Arabic star namesPhoto taken from medieval manuscript by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi(1236-1311), a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution" or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[4] Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign ofCaliph al-Ma'mun,[110] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes,[111] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning ofastrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[112] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology byAbū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[113] the use of exacting empiricalobservations and experimental techniques,[114] the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,[115] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir,[116] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather thanphilosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[4] the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotationby Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi's early hypothesis on "circular inertia."[117]Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system.[91][118] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model inNicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context,[119] and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji.[117][edit]ChemistryMain article: Alchemy (Islam)Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) is considered a pioneer of chemistry,[120][121] as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still, retort,[75]and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation,[122] liquefaction, crystallisation,purification, oxidisation and evaporation.[75]The study of traditional alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals were first refuted by al-Kindi,[123] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[124] Avicenna,[125] and Ibn Khaldun. In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was the first to prove both Aristotle's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory ofhumorism false using an experimental method.[126] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.[127]Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry.[89][91][edit]MathematicsMain article: Islamic mathematicsAmong the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development ofalgebra and algorithms by the Persian and Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī,[128][129] the invention of spherical trigonometry,[130] the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus andproof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of symbolic algebra byAbū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī,[131] and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus,cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry. An Arabic manuscript describing the eye, dating back to the 12th century[edit]MedicineMain article: Islamic medicineFurther information: Islamic psychology, Bimaristan, and Ophthalmology in medieval IslamIslamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems. The works of ancient Greekand Roman physicians Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Soranus, Celsusand Galen had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.[132][133][134]Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine, including anatomy, experimental medicine, ophthalmology,pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences, physiology, surgery, etc. They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals,[135]including the first medical schools[136] and psychiatric hospitals.[137]Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.[138] Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered measles andsmallpox, and in his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen's humorism false.[126]Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery,[139] with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[140]as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette,retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[141] and bone saw.[75] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics.[140]Ibn Sina (Avicenna) helped lay the foundations for modern medicine,[142] with The Canon of Medicine, which was responsible for introducing systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology,[143]the discovery of contagious disease, introduction of quarantine to limit their spread, introduction ofexperimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[144] randomized controlled trials,[145][146] efficacy tests,[147][148] and clinical pharmacology,[149] the first descriptions on bacteriaand viral organisms,[150] distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions,nervous ailments,[135] use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology.[140]Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental surgeon.[151] In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.[152] He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals.[153]Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology,[154] as he was the first to describe thepulmonary circulation[155] and coronary circulation,[156][157] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered "the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages."[158] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[159] and developed new systems of physiology andpsychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation,[160] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals,esophagus, stomach, etc.[161]Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming theskull can grow into tumors.[162] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.[163] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[5][edit]PhysicsMain article: Islamic physicsThe study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham,[164] a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding oflight and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics,[165] for initiating a scientific revolution in optics[166] and visual perception.[167]The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni,[168] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[169][170] and Avicenna.[171][172] The proportionality between force and acceleration, considered "the fundamental law of classical mechanics" and foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[173] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[174] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[175] Ibn al-Haytham,[176] and al-Khazini.[177] Galileo Galilei's mathematical treatment ofacceleration and his concept of impetus[178] was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna[171] and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle's Physics as well as the Neoplatonist tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus.[179][edit]Other sciencesMain article: Islamic scienceFurther information: Islamic geography, Islamic psychology, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early IslamMany other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution,physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geography andgeology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath), Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy),[180] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī(a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences[181] such asdemography,[182] economics,[183] cultural history,[184] historiography[185] and sociology),[186] among others.[edit]Other achievements[edit]ArchitectureMain article: Islamic architectureThe Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, that was built under Mughal rule.Selimiye Mosque, built by Sinan in 1575. Edirne, Turkey.The Great Mosque of Xi'an in China was completed circa740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiralingminaret was constructed.The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress ofGranada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in the 15-17th centuries. Blending Islamic and Hinduelements, the emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 1500s and his grandson Shah Jahan had constructed the mausoleum of Taj Mahal for Mumtaz Mahal in the 1650s, though this time period is well after the Islamic Golden Age.In the Sunni Muslim Ottoman Empire massive mosques with ornate tiles and calligraphy were constructed by a series of sultans including the Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultanahmet Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, and Bayezid II Mosque[edit]ArtsMain article: Islamic artFurther information: Islamic calligraphy, Arabesque, Iranian art, and Persian miniatureSee also: Islamic music, Arabic music, and Persian traditional musicAn Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Socrates(Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils.The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lustrous glazing was an Islamic contribution to ceramics. Islamic luster-painted ceramics were imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance. Manuscript illumination developed into an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.[edit]LiteratureMain articles: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, and Persian literatureThe most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian QueenScheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[187] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[187] "Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish.This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[188] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[189] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such asAladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller fromAleppo. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modernfantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc.[189] When L. Frank Baumproposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[190]Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history.Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the laterRomeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.[191]Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy inPhilosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral childrenliving in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of ascience fiction novel.[159][192]Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation,futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explnations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.[193]A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared byEdward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well asGerman and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[194][195][196][197] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[198] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story inRudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[199]Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: theHadith and the Kitab al-Miraj(translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[200] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peeleand William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazarand Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorishdelegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[201][edit]MusicThe lute was adopted from the Arab world. 1568 print. Main articles: Islamic music and Arabic musicA number of musical instruments used in Western music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: thelute was derived from the al'ud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from therebab, the guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff,alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba(flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,[202]the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar fromsunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments,[203] the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe),[204] the shawm anddulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna,[205] the gaitafrom the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,[206] the harp andzither from the qanun,[207] canon from qanun, geige (violin) fromghichak,[208] and the theorbo from the tarab.[209]A theory on the origins of the Western Solfège musical notationsuggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum(1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).[210][211] See as well the gifted Ziryab(Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi').[edit]PhilosophyMain articles: Islamic philosophy and Early Islamic philosophyFurther information: Logic in Islamic philosophy, Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400), and List of Muslim philosophersSee also: Islamic theology, Avicennism, Averroism, Early Muslim sociology, and Historiography of early IslamAverroes, an Arab Muslim polymath is the founder of theAverroism school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[212]Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as Kalam and Qiyas. This led to Avicenna founding his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the Muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of theAverroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[212] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[213]Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. Hisphilosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[214] condition of possibility,materialism,[215] and Molyneux's Problem.[216] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[217] Gottfried Leibniz,[197] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[218] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[219] and Samuel Hartlib.[198]Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonides[220][221] and Christianmedieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas[222] and René Descartes, who expressed similar ideas to that of al-Ghazali in Discourse on the Method.[223] However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina. The study of metaphysics declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[224]Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history[186] and social philosophy.[edit]End of the Golden Age[edit]Mongol invasion and Turkic settlementAfter the Crusades from the West that resulted in the instability of the Islamic world during the 11th century, a new threat came from the East during the 13th century: the Mongol invasions. In 1206,Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. A Mongolian ambassador to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad is said to have been murdered,[225] which may have been one of the reasons behind Hulagu Khan's sack of Baghdad in 1258.[226] The Mongols and Turks from Central Asia conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including bothChina in the east and parts of the old Islamic Caliphate and Persian Islamic Khwarezm, as well asRussia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur, though he himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irreparable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. These invasions transformed a settled society to a nomadic one. On the other hand, due to the lack of a powerful leader after the Mongolian invasion and Turkish settlement, some local Turkish kingdoms appeared in the Islamic world and they were in war and fighting against each other for centuries. The most powerful kingdoms among them were the empire of Ottoman Turks, who became Sunni Muslims and the empire of Safavi Turks, who became Shia Muslims. Eventually, they invaded very wide parts of the Islamic world and entered in a competition and a series of bloody wars until the middle of seventeenth century.Traditionalist Muslims at the time, including the polymath Ibn al-Nafis, believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions were a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from many traditionalist Muslims, though other traditionalists such as Ibn al-Nafis made attempts at reconciling reason with revelation and blur the line between the two.[227]Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia and Anatoliaconverted to Islam, and as a result, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanates became Islamic states. In many instances, Mongols assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson ofTimur). By the time the Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, the Golden Age is considered to have come to an end.[edit]Causes of declineFurther information: Islamic science: DeclineSee also: Great divergence and European miracle"The achievements of the Arabic speaking peoples between the ninth and twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our understanding. The decadence of Islam and of Arabic is almost as puzzling in its speed and completeness as their phenomenal rise. Scholars will forever try to explain it as they try to explain the decadence and fall of Rome. Such questions are exceedingly complex and it is impossible to answer them in a simple way." - George Sarton , The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East'[228]Islamic civilization, which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced from the 12th century onwards, towards the end of the Abbassid rule. Despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century. Some scholars such as M. I. Sanduk believe that the declination began from around the 11th century and still continued after this.[229]Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline. The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European colonial empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations) which points to the decline being mainly due to political and economic factors.[2]The North Africa's Islamic civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal.[230][231] TheBlack Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.[232]There was an increasing lack of tolerance of intellectual debate and freedom of thought, with some seminaries systematically forbidding speculative philosophy, while polemic debates appear to have been abandoned in the 14th century. A significant intellectual shift in Islamic philosophy is perhaps demonstrated by al-Ghazali's late 11th century polemic work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which lambasted metaphysical philosophy in favor of the primacy of scripture, and was later criticized inThe Incoherence of the Incoherence by Averroes. Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, were later destroyed by foreign invaders like the Crusaders and particularly the Mongols, and were rarely promoted again in the devastated regions.[233] Not only wasn't new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed the devastated lands, especially in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile in Persia, due to the Mongol invasions and the plague, the average life expectancy of the scholarly class in Persia had declined from 72 years in 1209 to 57 years by 1242.[84]American economist Timur Kuran proposed an answer why economic development in the Middle East lagged that of the West: Islamic partnership law and inheritance law interacted to keep Middle Eastern enterprises small, never allowing the development of corporate forms.[234][235]Some scholars have come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th and 16th centuries, with the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Ulugh Beg, Ali Kuşçu, al-Birjandi and Taqi al-Dinconsidered noteworthy examples.[236][237] This was also the case for other fields, such as medicine, notably the works of Ibn al-Nafis, Mansur ibn Ilyas and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu; mathematics, notably the works of al-Kashi and al-Qalasadi; philosophy, notably Mulla Sadra's transcendent theosophy; and the social sciences, notably Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah (1370), which itself points out that though science was declining in Iraq, Al-Andalus and Maghreb, it continued to flourish in Persia, Syria andEgypt during his time.[2][edit]Notes^ Joel L. Kraemer (1992), Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, p. 1 & 148, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004072594.^ a b c Ahmad Y Hassan, Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century^ Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750-1258 C.E.) and today", The FASEB Journal 20, p. 1581-1586.^ a b cd George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, p. 245, 250, 256-257. New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237.^ a b c Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam, p. 270 (book cover, last page), University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0^ a b Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26-38 ISBN 081573283X^ Arnold Pacey, "Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History", MIT Press, 1990, ISBN 0262660725 pg 41-42^ Bülent Þenay. "Sufism". Retrieved 2007-06-26.^ "Muslim History and the Spread of Islam from the 7th to the 21st century". The Islam Project. Retrieved 2007-06-26.^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.^ Joel L. Kraemer (1992), Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004072594.^ Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), "The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study" (PDF), Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity, Al Akhawayn University, retrieved 2008-01-31^ L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", Environment and History 8 (4), pp. 475-488.^ S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50.(cf. References, 1001 Inventions)^ a b Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 056708969X.^ Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8].^ Micheau, Francoise, "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East", pp. 992-3, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985-1007)^ John Bagot Glubb (cf. Quotations on Islamic Civilization)^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242^ a b Makdisi, George (April-June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West",Journal of the American Oriental Society109 (2): 175-182 [175-77], doi:10.2307/604423^ a b Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, Quest for knowledge, New Sunday Times, 3 July 2005.^ Patricia Skinner (2001), Unani-tibbi, Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine^ N. M. Swerdlow (1993). 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(July-October 1966), "The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali", Philosophy East and West 16 (3-4): 133-41, doi:10.2307/1397536^ Kamal, Muhammad (2006), Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., pp. 9 & 39, ISBN0754652718, OCLC 224496901 238761259 61169850^ talk then walk^ Ibn Battuta's Trip: Part Three - Persia and Iraq (1326 - 1327)^ Fancy, p. 49 & 59^ George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture,March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951^ [5]^ The Great Mosque of Tlemcen, MuslimHeritage.com^ Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)^ Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.^ Economic Scene; The decline of the Muslim Middle East, and the roots of resentment, can be traced to Islamic inheritance law., New York Times^ How Islamic Inheritance Law Impeded Development, National Center for Policy Analysis^ David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis, 74 (1983):531-555^ George Saliba, "Writing the History of Arabic Astronomy: Problems and Differing Perspectives (Review Article),Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116 (1996): 709-718.[edit]See alsoGolden age of Jewish culture in SpainIslamic contributions to Medieval Europe Latin translations of the 12th centuryIslamic studies Inventions in the Islamic worldIslamic scienceMuslim Agricultural RevolutionTimeline of science and technology in the Islamic worldList of Islamic studies scholars List of Muslim scientistsList of Arab scientists and scholarsList of Iranian scientists and scholarsMuslim conquests List of Muslim empiresGlobal empireArts Architecture • Art • Calligraphy • Literature • Music • Poetry • PotteryEconomics Economic Jurisprudence • Economic History • Islam and PovertyHistory Timeline • Historiography • Conquests • Golden Age • Agricultural Revolution •Economic History • Contributions to Medieval Europe • European RenaissancePhilosophy Early Philosophy • Modern Philosophy • Theology (Kalam) • Ethics • Logic • Metaphysics •Historiography • Sociology (Medieval Sociology)Science & Technology Timeline • Agricultural Revolution • Alchemy and Chemistry • Astronomy • Geography •Inventions • Mathematics • Medicine (Ophthalmology) • Physics • PsychologyOther fields Feminism • Jurisprudence • Law • Peace • Politics • Sufi Studies (Mysticism)[edit]ReferencesGaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review136 (4): 1231-1261Donald Routledge Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3,Routledge, ISBN 0415124107Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.), Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1-85941-729-9George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004098968Shoja-e-din Shafa, Rebirth (1995) (Persian Title: تولدى ديگر)*Shoja-e-din Shafa, After 1400 Years(2000) (Persian Title: پس از 1400 سال[hide] v • d • e Islamic studies

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