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The Geiger-Marsden experiment by Rutherford's assistants used a variety of metal foils, among them iron and aluminum, to provide a thin, uniform electrostatic field*, through which alpha particles should have been able to pass with little effect. But the relatively large, heavy, and positively-charged gold nuclei substantially deflected a few alpha particles, indicating that the mass of an atom was mostly concentrated in its center, with an electron cloud occupying otherwise empty space around it.

* The greater the thickness of the material used, the more the alpha particles might be slowed, and they had to reach the detectors around the foil in sufficient numbers and with sufficient energy to trigger the counters.

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