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Storm in which there is considerable falling andof blowing snow?
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What is the density and specific gravity andof a substance that has a mass of 321 gramsand a volume of 45cc at a room temperature?
Density = Mass/Volume =3.21/45 =7.13g/cc Spec Grav = density of substance/ density of water =7.13/1 =7.13
Please tell tips to decrease weight up to 10 kgs?
To loose 10 kg in weight you will have to walk and do exercise, and where food is concerned you should stop having sugar, rice, white flour things likebread and bakery products andof course oily food must stop.
Should withholding tax be eliminated?
No...all it is is the method of collecting tax...it isn't a tax. Andof course, if you don't have withholding, like a self employed, you must make estimated payments every quarter. Simply, a large amount of people do not have the understanding or ability to calculate and put aside the money to pay the tax when otherwise due.
In the US if your personal income was 1 billion what do you owe the IRS?
First you understand that only a very few people have, even over a lifetime, amassed that amount of income. And even then, that personal fortune would be involved in assorted trusts, businesses and investments. So thw q is virtually nonsensical. Federally, you would pay at the highest rate andof course you would also pay state tax, presumably, and maybe city....depending on where you lived. Your combinned tax rate would likely be @44% so you would pay: $440,000,000.00, or about $50,230.00 an hour, every hour of the year.
What has the author Robert Huish written?
Robert Huish has written: 'The Memoirs, Private and Political, of Daniel O'Connell, Esq., from the Year 1776 to the Close ..' 'A sacred memorial of Her late Royal Highness, Charlotte Augusta, princess of Wales..' -- subject(s): Death and burial 'The history of the life and reign of William the Fourth, the reform monarch of England ..' 'Memoirs of Her late Royal Highness Charlotte Augusta, Princess of Wales' 'A treatise on the nature, economy, and practical management of bees' -- subject(s): Bee culture, Bees, Comb Honey, Beehives 'Memoirs Of Her Late Majesty Caroline, Queen Of Great Britain V1' 'The last voyage of Capt. Sir John Ross, R. N. Knt. to the Arctic regions, for the discovery of a northwest passage' 'Memoirs Of Her Late Majesty Caroline V2, Part Two' 'Fitzallan' 'The red barn' 'A narrative of the voyages and travels of Captain Beechey ... to the Pacific and Behring's Straits' 'The Red Barn: A Tale Founded on Fact' 'Memoirs of Her late Royal Highness Charlotte Augusta, princess of Wales, &c' 'Memoirs of George the Fourth' 'The history of the life and reign of William the Fourth, the reform monarch of England, including political portraits of the celebrated men, who were the friends and supporters of his government' 'The last voyage of Capt. Sir John Ross, to the Arctic regions' -- subject(s): Victory (Ship) 'Memoirs of her late Royal Highness Charlotte Augusta, Princess of Wales, &c.... andof her illustrious consort Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg Saalfeld'
What are the structural and non structural mitigation measures for landslides?
Structural mitigation measures for landslides include constructing retaining walls, installing rock bolts or soil nails, building terraces or benches to stabilize slopes, and implementing drainage systems to control water flow. Non-structural mitigation measures include land use planning to avoid building in high-risk areas, monitoring and early warning systems to detect landslide triggers, vegetation planting to improve slope stability, and education and awareness programs to inform communities about landslide risks and safety measures.
When did pope last use infallibility?
To the best of my knowledge the last time the pope spoke infallibly was on October 17, 2010, when he canonized 6 new saints.Answer:The most recent use (as of June 2, 2013) of infallibility occurred on May 12, 2013, when Pope Francis declared 800 martyrs of Otranto, Italy, who were killed by Islamic invaders on August 14, 1480, to be saints along with two other individuals.Since the canonization process was instituted in the 12th century, the official proclamation of the pope declaring a person a saint has been considered as infallible.Here is the English translation of the Latin proclamation made by the Pope at a recent canonization:"For the honor of the Blessed Trinity, the exaltation of the Catholicfaith and the fostering of the Christian life, by the authority of ourLord Jesus Christ, of the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and our own,after due deliberation and frequent prayers for the divine assistance,and having sought the counsel of our Brother Bishops, we declare anddefine that Bl. (name of proposed saint) is a saint and we enrollher/him among the saints, decreeing that he/she is to be venerated inthe whole Church as one of the saints. In the name of the Father, andof the Son and of the Holy Spirit."The formula is very similar to that used for the definition of thedoctrine of the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption.The 1967 New Catholic Encyclopedia discusses the theological foundation for the infallibility of canonization: "The dogma that saints are to be venerated and invoked as set forth in the profession of faith of Trent has as its correlative the power to canonize. ... St. Thomas Aquinas says, 'Honor we show the saints is a certain profession of faith by which we believe in their glory, and it is to be piously believed that even in this the judgment of the Church is not able to err'"The pope cannot by solemn definition induce errors concerning faith and morals into the teaching of the universal Church. Should the Church hold up for universal veneration a man's life and habits that in reality led to [his] damnation, it would lead the faithful into error. It is now theologically certain that the solemn canonization of a saint is an infallible and irrevocable decision of the supreme pontiff. God speaks infallibly through his Church as it demonstrates and exemplifies its universal teaching in a particular person or judges that person's acts to be in accord with its teaching."At the same time, it is important to note that while the decree of heroic virtues and the miracle form a necessary part of the process of canonization, they are not the specific object of the declaration of infallibility.This is the reason that the canonization process is such a lengthy procedure that may take years or even centuries to complete. Once the statement of canonization has been proclaimed by the Holy Father it can not be undone. The Church must be assured beyond a shadow of a doubt that the person is, indeed, in Heaven.
Who is the king of Switzerland?
Switzerland started with three royal families, tribes, or ruling families who created a confederacy among themselves to protect each other and their collective interests and boundaries that formed Switzerland. This confederacy was established 1 August 1291. One of the families Schwyz(Switzer) was the largest of the three families, the strongest of the three tribes, with the largest canton. Uri and Nidwalden being the other two original cantons were joined by Glarus, Zug, Lucerne, Zurich and Bern by 1353. Though the Swiss did bring Kings from Germany, Austria, and French and Roman Emperors imposed their claim on Switzerland. Those Kingdoms were overthrown by the Swiss once the Swiss discovered that they did not like being ruled by outsiders, treated like second class citizens on their own land and Swiss interest was not being served.Switzerland is a Confederation of the Cantons. Swiss Government consist of seven members who are elected by the United Federal Assembly to the Federal Council; who hold the position in trust for a four year mandate. Among the Federal Council a President is elected for a one Year term. We'd like to congratulate Doris Leuthard to her appoint for 2010.The President of the Swiss Confederation is regarded as Primus inter pares, or first among equals, for this period. She leads the meetings of the Federal Council and undertakes special representational duties. The President of the Swiss Confederation is an administration position, and the primary duty of the President is to resolve or decide tie breaking votes of the Federal Council.Switzerland is a republic with a president. There's noking!They have no king or queen. they have a president and his name is Hans- Rudolph merz.Who is family claims Switzerland's Kingship?Let us settle this issue once and for all time shall we? Who isSwitzerland's King? Or for that matter Israel's or Europe's King andwhat about Tarpon Spring's King? There is one claimant to thosecoveted thrones!He is American by birth. His American name is John Christian Saxer Jr.His Swiss name is Johann Christian Von Sax the second. He lives inFlorida and regards the throne of England as a fake pretender to thetrue throne; only the Stuarts of the true King's property.He is Great unto his own deeds. He has a patent on a pyramid healingbed chamber issued by the U.S.A. that borders on a perpetual motionmachine. He calls it the "Phoenix Dream Chamber" featuring a QuartzCrystal Capstone of clear perfect quality and credits sleeping in itto have produced his great insight. He has located the capstone of theGreat Pyramid at Giza through math analysis. He has been given creditfor decoding the only symbol (the BOSS)inside the Great pyramid byJohn Gangstead author of "Signs in the Sun" a book about the GreatPyramid's math.He has discovered over a thousand giant ancient holey stone "arkanchors" on the west central coast of Florida. This proves thatAtlantis was on the Gulf of Mexico as the inland sea of Atlantis withNew Port Ritchie as the entrance port with the carvings of Atlas andHesperis the first wife on an "anchor type" Stone. He has located theGreek Garden of the three Hesperides at Tarpon Springs by the overheadview of the ancient river system revealing the portrait of Poseidonand the marriage of Atlas to Hesperis, and the dragon shaped riverthat is the serpent of Eden trailing off of the rear end of Atlaswhich signifying evolution stage from primate to human. Euphratesmeans the dragon shaped river in Greek or Atlantian. That riveraccording to ancient texts had mounds as does the Anclote where as thepresent day Euphrates does not! This means that this Garden was theoriginal and and perhaps the only ancient Garden of Eden. He has beenfeatured in many T.V., news and magazine articles about thisnon-theory reality in his efforts to educate our society to theapparent truths of the Greek Mythology.He is the first proponent of the Earth-Flip Theory where as the Earthcan and has flipped in the past causing the last biblical flood ofNoah and over flowing of Atlantis as the ocean waters spilled out overthe continents as they slipped underneath and later returned to oceanbasins thus reversing our magnetic orientation at the same time andfrom where the sun rises and sets. No other explanation for the worldflood exists! Ask yourself: "would the Earth flipping cause anyproblems?" (Mathew 24 Stars falling from the sky?).He is also the one of the first proponents of a duel sun solar systembased on the procession of the equinoxes and a counter weight, a "DarkStar" to balance the action of that wobble. And also a visitingplanet, Nibiru or wormwood that elliptically orbits between the twosuns through our immediate solar system in a 3200 yr cycle. Saxerexpounded on that and on the missing capstone at the Ancient AstronautConvention in 1978 in Chicago. The leader of that convention Eric vonDanikin was rather put off by this relative youngster, Saxer at 28yrs.old to have shown the entire group of 300 there at that meeting thatanother leader in mankind's evolution had emerged with obvious dataindicating he was right. Saxer was rewarded by getting his membershipto the Ancient Astronaut Society revoked by Von Danikin with thedeclaration that "you will never speak at one of my conventionsagain!" Than later in 1992 the Jet Propulsion Lab astrophysicistspeaker at that same convention declared that they had located a"Brown Dwarf" in our solar system. They only had looked where Saxerhad pointed. That same speaker when Saxer initially spoke to him aboutthe possibility of a "Dark Star" said "absolutely not such an item inour solar system!". Mr. Saxer had given a lesson in common senseastrophysics! The only good thing about that guy is he later correctedhimself! One can only wonder what von Danikin will say when herealizes he kicked out of his little club the one who would becomefuture King of his residing country. Perhaps one of his ancient godswill rescue him in one of those chariots of theirs before the Kingdeclares eminent domain on his estates.Von Sax has corrected our history when none of the learned men andwomen of this society could do so. This is extremely pitiful of allour authoritarian intellectuals who have let us down universally whenthe given facts were always available to each of us..oh wait righteoussubjects; big Al Einstein was also a proponent of earth flip theory asrecently brought to the attention of von Sax on "coast to coastA.M.with George Noori". It's great to be on a par with that guy!Einstein not GeorgeMr. von Sax is also progenitor and a believer in the rathercontroversial theory that the Father of Jesus was indeed Zacharias,the High Priest of the temple and the uncle of Mary. This would meanthat John the Baptist was also actually half brother to Jesus, andMary was cousin to John. This allowed passing on the line of David andJudah as father to son through artificial insemination (immaculateconception) so as to provide as potent blood possible of the DavidicPriest-King gene to provide as strong an opposition and resistance tothe Roman occupation rule at that time. This secrecy the led to thevirgin birth of God pretext that has confused all Christian faithsever since( Hebrews 5 & 6). This is the only way Joseph could haveaccepted the pregnancy! Joseph was the protector of the comingmessiah: the Anointed King of Israel. Also as Messiah Priest -King ofIsrael he would have been required to produces an Heir to the AnointedThrone as soon as possible given the Roman occupation again. CouldJohn the beloved of the Apocalypse be the First Born Child of Jesus?Again secrecy had to be used to keep him safe. How else was that boyable to revealate.. He lived the longest of the apostles and saw themost!. Again none of the religious scholars have even proposed anything close to the correct sequence of events! Maybe the X- Nazi popewill X COMMUNICATE von Sax for giving out too much truth. And thenwhat? Will the pontificator get a pike in the posterior by one of theKings Loyal Swiss Guard?His Royal Swiss claim rests on his family line as it goes back to theOld Confederacy of the Swiss when his ancestors in a 200 year feud(Werdenbergfeud) managed by seven generations of von Sax familypatriarchs; men named Casper, Johann, Heinrich, Johann Peter, Wilhelm,Johann Ulrich and Matthias. They were acknowledged as Princes of theEmpire.It started when Albert the 1st of Austria a Hapsburg in 1278A.D.became Emperor as he did steal the Gold of Solomon, and the rightfulfuture King-Priest from Kyburg castle an early Swiss "von Sax" (of theSTONE) property where it was stored and brought it to Austria. He wasa nephew to the real owners, at Kyburgs Castle. Albert the 1st was notentitled to it as were the the Exilarchs; meaning monarchs in exile.Albert Hapsburg's despicable act of course started the Swiss War forIndependence.Years earlier The Knights Templars were the Army of the Lord foundedby St. Bernard in the middle 11th century and continually under thecontrol of the Von Sax Family at Mesocco! In 1213 treacherous acts oftreason by King Philip of France and the Pope to steal their gold madethe Templar King retreat to their Swiss Celtic Haven, Rhatia (foundedby Keltus son of the Spartan Royalty).The "STONE OF DESTINY "sometimes called "lia fail" is also known byanother title in latin, SAXum Fatali. This stone was taken by St.Columbo an Irish monk, with equal royal rank, away from the ScottishKing as punishment for evil he had done. He the traveled to Europealong with Holy Gallus his brother and his 12 man entourage carryingit . This stone as it is said throughout history has crowned 100Scottish and Irish Kings over 1000 years from 500 B.C. to 560 A.D. asthey sat upon it. St. Columbo prophesied that when this stonereappears that all mankind will hear it shout out the name of the trueKing whose right it is to claim his inheritance. The Scots and Englishhave fought and crowned over a door step stone, the false stone for1,500 years while the real stone ended up in St. Gallen, Switzerlandin the hands of the descendants of Holy Gallus at their castle. Thatstone altar is from the time of Jacob at Pineal where he wrestled anAngel-God to test him, happens at this point in time to have on it thename of your true King: Johann von Sax and an engraving of thepouncing young lion of Zion of Judah representing David's anointing ashe in one move killed Goliath and that allowed the Anointed Army ofthe Most High God to kill10,000 scattering Philistines. Von Sax familykeeps it safe for it is an Altar Stone to Sacrifice to God Almighty inthanksgiving for all we have in life.The 1499A.D. Emperor Sigismund's large Austrian army and the SwabianKnight army were defeated by "Ulrich the peasant" von Sax with 200great-grandsons of the Templars in uniform along with the peasantSwiss army. At that time the records of the Swiss were systematicallydestroyed to hide this information by Sigismund in order to eliminatethe true Kings claim to the Davidic Throne as Priest-King, acontinuous line of more than 3,000 years at that time. Sigismund, theHoly Roman Emperor out of obvious jealousy for the title of Exilarch;which his cousin Ulrich actually was, had almost all records of thisfamily obliterated and claimed the title Priest-King. Sigismund wasnot happy with only being Emperor. This is an example of righteousnessfacing evil tyranny head on. Apparently this accomplishment of winningindependence for the Swiss put a price on Ulrich's head and the familywent into hiding with their royal secret! Lands and property had to beabandoned to keep the Holy Royal Davidic Line intact! Yet through themagic and power of the Internet some, enough have survived, making the"E paper"trail easier to follow.Yet the Swiss union survived and became a freemen democratic nation attremendous costs to the von Sax family and their heirs. One third ofSwitzerland belonged to the von Sax from marriages and acquisitions,starting from before the 9th century through Charlemagne's Father'sthankfulness toward the Exilarchs of Narbonne and Septamania, earliervon Sax Ancestors who fought against the Moors named Bin Sacco orZacco the Victor meaning from Isaac's Son; who is Jacob (Israel).Great Swiss Houses,Toggenburger, Zahringer, Kyburg, Belmont andRhaitia were all von Sax holdings well earned; as well as MESOCCO theSwiss National Monument to their independence. From 1240 through 1499A.D. von Sax's ruled as Priest-Kings. Then Sigismund's actions leftthe present blood royal king without castles, gold, and position. Sadto see the Swiss with all that money and how quickly they forget whosefamily got them there! How quickly the world forgot who establishedthe first modern democracy that lead to French, German and eventuallythe United States freedom nations. George Washington was the Ulrichvon Sax of America, not the reverse. How quickly they forgot who wroteSwiss common law, law that is still relevant today.It's hard to see in the famous "Oath of Rhutli"1296 the Swissdeclaration of Independence from Hapsburg tyranny where freemen stealproperty from other freemen; especially the one man that wasresponsible for the hard fought freedom, Ulrich the Great Priest-Kingvon Sax. We all owe him the biggest debt of gratitude for how we livenow each and every one of us.! January 1st of every free moderndemocratic nation should be set aside as (Ulrich) von Sax day!The von Sax family clearly goes back to Charlemagne and as such VonSax claims that THRONE AS WELL in Aachen. Get ready Switzerland andthe European Union for He aims to RULE. He is the Exilarch of theJewish line of David and His records show this. He is worried aboutthe present course of human affairs because he feels the leadershipout of greed and ignorance has lost is control over the ships of stateand the welfare of mankind! He loves and cares for his subjects andplans to restore righteousness and truth to all mankind by Hisrightful monarchy. There are no other claimants because no-one can.Saxer's grandparents Johann Ulrich and Mary Marie came to America in1911 to protect their future family. The Swiss sister to Johann soldoff the last reacquired von Sax property as the Nazi party came topower in1936, fearing their persecution as always the Royal Davidicline has endured. Johann the grandfather had three sons the Second sonJohn married Madelyn Maria Teresa Davis a Welsh princess.( suspectedof being Davidic line as yet untraceable) "The Stone which thebuilders rejected has become head of the corner: this is the LORD'Sdoing and it is marvelous in our eyes!" is a quote out of the bible.Johann Christian Von Sax has been quoted as saying: "Let the righteousstand with him. Let evil men fall! Let their family members and closeassociates police the corrupted ones even unto death for the sake ofall mankind: this must be done." "Ask not what the King can do foryou, for he already has; rather ask what you may do for your fellowservants of the KINGDOM"You will enjoy his press releases on Ponce de Leon as well. The lostcolony of 200 Spanish was recently located by your King of History andarchaeology. "Johann the Great" has finished the work of "Alexanderthe Great", to locate Atlantian Eden!Johann von Sax may be goggled; John Saxer, ark anchors, TarponSprings, and as of yet no web home site. However please use thisaddress Johannvonsax@gmail.com (E MAIL) media inquiriesMy Dear People of Switzerland,I intend to return to Switzerland as arch- prince in a few weeksdepending how the media responds to my revelation of my existance asyou actual king! I intend to claim Schloss Werdenberg and live thereas I rule.That as the White house of Europe at one time. Thatperticular castle was in fact never paid for properly as your ownhistory books have revieled to me and many others who study the law.When a family estate is lost during a war and no-one has claimed itthe heir or head of the family has the absolute right the claim itback with no payment and in addition there is no financial reparationsthat have top be paid in such cases. Johann von Sax in 1481 or so lostpossesion to a Giovannie (an Italian general ) that the citizens ofBuch through him out as Johann tried to collect the funds for thesale. They the citizens took over the castle and maintained it. Thereis no statute of limitations on such cases!My family armed and taughtthe pesant to fight for freedom. It cost our family everthing and wehave recieved nothing through the centuries after ruling their forover 700 years. Payback can some time resettle KARMA IF YOU ALL KNOWWHAT I MEAN > Vengious and Salvation are exactly mine and my fqamiliesin this case!All have thought that the family line died out but in actuallityit has not! I am the heir thought Johann Phipip von Hohansax von Saxthe mummy of Senwald who nevwer recieved his inheritance and was theson of Mattias von Hohansax von Sax who married the wife of" Ulrichthe Great of Swabia" who was at war to free the Swiss from theoppression of Sigimund the Holy Holy Roman Emperor at the time. It wasfeared that Ulrich was killed in battle having not heard from theroyal Swiss King who signed up as "Ulrich the pesant" to sharesolidarity with the people and their cause of freedom. Mattias andKatherine then found out Ulrich was alive and retreated to safety withPhipip thire newborn son as Ulrich's temper could not be trusted totake the news! Mattias motives were indeed honorable as the legitamatelineage of the Merovingians from Prince Ursa of he (th centurymigration from France and therefore Exilarc's of Isreal lineage had tobe maintained because it was promise fron God Alnmighty a Savior ofmankind would come from that holy seed "The Scepter of Israel shallnever Judah : father to son till the end of Time!" from the Jacob binIsaac's death bed words of Isreals' future rule on earth & I am thatHoly SEED brought to life as King not only of Switzerland , Swabia.Werdenberg, But Judah and all the lost europian tribes of Isreal andof all the Anglo-SAXons everwhere as depicted on the "Behiston Stone"of Darious who reliesed the Jews from Persia in the 3rd century B.C.as they crossed the Caucasion mountians into europe! There should beno doubt about it but if you doubt it say goodby to your lovesd onesin Switzerland for you have no place in the Kingdom of Peace which Ishall Rule with righteousness and truth for all righteous humans.God bless the righteous of the Lord as I represent the GodAlmighty who has personally ordaned me to this righteous word andduty. AmenI am Johannes Christian von Hohansax von Sax and I have come forth
Did all of the Israelites leave Egypt at the time of the Exodus or did some remain in Egypt?
Firstly, it needs to be understood that there are not two creationaccounts but two 'parts' to the one account. The reason for thisassertion will be explained below.The common ancient practice, as evidenced in other ancientliterature, was to write one main account and then to write asecond part or section which expanded on the first or some aspectof it. This is precisely what we have in the creation account whichspans Genesis 1 and 2.Secondly, it needs to be understood clearly that the DocumentaryHypothesis or JEDP Theory from the 19th Century has been repeatedlyand thoroughly refuted in terms of the main presuppositions onwhich it is based. It thus has no basis as a factual theory. Inparticular, this theory totally ignores the findings of archaeologywhich refute its false presuppositions. It is archaeology, with itsgrowing evidence of ancient literature which has furnished exampleswhich highlight this ancient literary device.Thirdly, in relation to the two parts of the one account thedivisions are these. The first part of the account is generallychronological in that it gives a summary of the total creation overthe period of the six days into the seventh day of rest. Thisaccount proceeds from Genesis 1:1 to 2:4a.The second part of the one account begins at 2:4a and dealsspecifically with the creation of man. It is non-chronological,which is why some people see a non-existent contradiction betweenthe two parts. Understanding the different emphasis removes thismisunderstanding.Summary:The simple reason there appears to be two creation accounts is thatthis is an ancient literary usage. This usage takes a generaloverview and then later takes a particular part and expands uponit. There are thus not two accounts but different parts of the oneaccount.AnswerRe-thinking the single creation theoryFirst, one has to keep in mind that these ancient writings are froma Hebratic people, and only they can make known their spiritualbeliefs and practices.In my research on this very subject, I have found information thathas changed my understanding of the creation story that I learnedfrom childhood through Sunday School.Christ in John 4:22, is speaking to a Samaritan woman concerningwhom they worship, "Ye worship ye know not what: we know what weworship: for salvation is of the Jews."To lean the truth, we need to look to the Jewish teachings, and notthe translations by modern man or their interpretations.And this I have done.Numbers are very significate to Jewish faith.Let's look at the numbers 7 and 8.In kabbalistic teachings, the number seven symbolizes perfection -perfection that is achievable via natural means - while eightsymbolizes thatwhich is beyond nature and its (inherently limited) perfection.Some examples:a) God created the world and its natural order in seven days.b) Between the holidays of Passover and Shavuot there are sevenweeks. During these weeks the Jews work on perfecting their sevenemotions (love, fear, compassion, ambition, humility, bonding andreceptiveness)-one emotion per week. At the conclusion of theseseven weeks they have sufficiently perfected themselves to beworthy of receiving the Torah on Shavuot. A completed person hascontrol over all seven emotions.c) The Holy Temple's menorah, which served to illuminate thenatural world with the holy glow of spirituality, had sevenbranches.e) There are seven colors of the rainbow and seven musical notes.When something has seven parts, it symbolizes that it has reachedits state of completion: the seven notes of the diatonic scale makeone complete octave, etc.Eight, on the other hand, is symbolic of an entity that is one stepabove the natural order, higher than nature and its limitations.That's why Chanukah is eight days long-The greatly outnumbered Maccabees' resolve to battle the Greekswasn't logical or natural. They drew on reservoirs of faith andcourage that are not part of normative human nature. They thereforemerited a miracle higher than nature - a miracle that lasted eightdays - and to commemorate this, the Jews light on Chanukah aneight-branched menorah.It was a command by God that all Jewish baby boys were to becircumcised on the eight day after their birth to consecrate themto god. In Judaism, circumcision is considered a symbol of thecovenant between God and the Jewish people. In fact, brisliterally means "covenant." The bris is on the eighth day sothat the newborn baby will by necessity live through a completeweek which must include a Sabbath. Once the baby has experiencedthe "holiness" of the Shabbos, he may enter into the covenant ofthe Jewish people.Now let's go to the scriptues.TWO CREATIONS OF MANCreation 1) THE GENTILES (People of Different Nations)Creation 2) MESSIANNIC LINE (Adam - Noah - David - Christ)DAY 6 "Let the earth bring forth the living creature after hiskind,"(A spoken command by the creator (the Word) and it was done. Theywere not "formed" by the hands of the creator, it was a command andthe earth delivered.)1st. he created - Cattle2nd. he created - The things that creep/crawls upon the earth3rd he created - The beasts of the earth. And "It was so."4th God is taking inventory and God made the beast of the earthafter his kind, and cattle after his kind, and every thing thatcreepeth upon the earth after his kind : and God saw that it wasgood."5th - Let us make man in our image, after our likeness : and letthem [plural, as in nations, races] have dominion over ALL livingcreatures, of those in the sea, in the air and of 'the beasts' andof 'the creeping things.' [God gave dominion over the earth tothese human beings that He just created.]Vs 27 - "So God created man in his own image, in the imageof God created he him; male and female created he them."Vs 28 And now God blessed them, and God said unto them, Befruitful, and multiply, and replenish [replenish as in repopulate?!]Vs 31 And God saw every thing that he had made, and behold, it wasVERY good. Not just "good", as was exclaimed in verses 1:10, 12,18, 21, and 25, but VERY good. He was well satisfied. Chapter 2:1-3God says, Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and ALL THEHOST OF THEM. (the "hosts" of heaven, the angels and the hosts ofthe earth, mankind, and creatures, both male and female)Genesis Chapter 2 - The Sabbath2&3 And He rested on the 7thday and He blessed and sanctifiedit. Now this part of the creation phase is complete. And He says, 4these are THE GENERATIONS of the heavens and of the earth, in theday, that the LORD God made the earth and heavens,for the Lord God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, andthere was not a man to till the ground. 6 There went up a mist fromthe earth, and watered the whole face of the ground. 7 And the LordGod formed man from the moistened earth, and breathed into hisnostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul. (ThroughAdam, a Savior would be born, an "eternal" living soul) Adam wasthe beginning of a "special" race of people, a "saving" race.Next, pay close attention to the order in which things are createdhere, starting with the creation of Adam. The steps in which eachitem was created, is different from the 6th day creation where"man" was created last and animals and creeping things were createdfirst.1st Adam is formed. Genesis 5b - 7.2nd "God planted a garden3rd Now we have a river flowing out of Eden, watering the garden,parting and forming 4 rivers.4th Genesis 2:15 Heavenly Father put Adam in the garden.5th Genesis 2:18 LORD God said, "It is not good that the man shouldbe alone; I will make him an help meet."6th Genesis 2:19-20 "Out of the ground the LORD God formed everybeast of the field , every fowl of the air, {Notice this time the"earth did not bring forth every creature after his kind" as istold on the 6th day of creation, these creations were "formed" bythe creator. Another noticeable missing created item of the 6th daycreation are the creeping things! They were not created in thiscreation day and there is a reason that I will explain later.}[These are the "clean" creations, the animals to besacrificed to God in the temple.The Sacrifices - Leviticus 1:2 - cattle, 1:10 - sheep & goats,1:14 - fowl.]7th Genesis 2:21-25 God formed Eve.Adam was created FIRST in this creation where as the creation of"mankind, male and female" created on the 6th day were createdlast, a different creation, a different people. (The people of Nod,East of Eden, were of the 6th day race of people, one of manynations. Adam was created 2 days later, on the 8th day. The EightDay creations, as I've written, is symbolic of an entity that isone step above the natural order, higher than nature and itslimitations.)The 6th day creations were all "unclean or blemished" heathen andun-Godly humans and animals with blimishes and the 8th daycreations are "clean, Godly humans and the animals were withoutblemish".Genesis 6:19 "And of every living thing of ALL FLESH, two of everysort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee;they shall be male and female."Genesis 7 1-9Noah was ordered to take aboard the ark, seven ofevery clean beast and fowl, the male and his female, and of thebeast that are not clean, by two, the male and his female. Noah andhis family were righteous and without blemish, and through Noah,Christ would be born.Two creations, one "unclean" created on the 6th day and the other"clean" and special created on the 8th day.1Peter 3:20 "eight souls were "saved" by water." (We see thebaptism of Noah's family by water)The righteous/clean/saved people on the ark were:Noah and his wifeHam and his wifeShem and his wifeJapheth and his wife, the 8 saved souls.Genesis 2:5(b) - 25Stong's and NAS Exhaustive Concordances of the Bible :Strong's #120Word - h�·'�·��m, �·��mDefination: man, mankindNAS Exhaustive ConcordanceDefination: man, mankindNASB Translationany man (2x), anyone (4x), anyone's (1x), being* (1x), common sort*(1), human (19), infantry (1), low degree* (1), low* (1), man(363), man's (20), man* (1), mankind (9), men (104), men of lowdegree* (1), men's (3), men* (4), mortal (1), one (3), people (1),person (5), person* (1), persons (3), population (1), someone (1).Next compare both translations of "adam".GENESIS 1:26The creation of man/humansStrong's # 120 / Transliteration - �·��m / Heb. word -�ָ�ָ��/ Eng. MANGen. 2:5bThe creation of the man named Adam. A being or "entity that is onestep above the natural order, higher than nature and itslimitations".Strong's # 120 / Transliteration - h�·'�·��m / Heb.word�ְ�ָ�ָ֣� / Eng. MANNotice the number of characters, strokes and dots under both Hebrewwords above.The word translated for the Hebrew words "adam and ha-adam" intothe English translated word "man", should have been translated, insome instances, differently for a better understanding. To clarifythe differance between two separate subjects or better yet, twocreations.For example: Genesis1:26 the creation of manHebrew text:1) "way·y�·mer /2) ' �·l�·hîm, /3) na·'�·�eh /4)�·��m /5) b�·ṣal·mê·nū,"English Transliteration1) said /2) God, /3) make /4) 'man kind' /5) our image."I have given you the information, draw your own conclusions.Because before God created the earth and every living thing physically, he made them spiritually; therefore everything has a spirit, even the earth. Hence, two accounts. Put simply, because there were two writers, at least, of Genesis. The 'priestly' writer tells of a God that is personal, and more human-like. He tells of him walking in the Garden with Adam, and having human traits. The second writer, the 'Jahwehist' writer tells of a God that is more aloof and spiritual, and less personal.The evidence for this is overwhelming but easily missable in English translations of Genesis. In the original Hebrew the style of writing between the two writers of the Creation stories is obvious - as obvious as the difference between Tenessee Williams and Shakespeare, or Dickens and Harold Pinter.Are the Creation stories made up then? No, but most Biblical scholars and many Christians who are not Creationists (in the sense that Genesis should be taken word-for-word literally), agree that the stories are far more profound than mere stories of two people in a garden. Many Christians look deeper than the superficial stories of Adam and Eve, and find a real truth of humanity's arrogance and determination to do its own thing rather than obey God's will.The two accounts are sometimes seen by bible Scholars as representing God the Father (the Jahwehist, Spiritual God) and Jesus Christ, as God incarnate (The Priestly God).Finally, if one is to interpret Genesis correctly there are many questions that must be asked, and false assumptions about Genesis dispersed. As one example, we read that God forbade Adam and Eve to eat of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. If, by knowing that eating of that tree would cause death and suffering, why did he put it there in the first place? To catch us out? That does not speak to me of a God of love, but a God out to trap us. Therefore, many scholars now agree that the Tree was part of God's plan - necessary in order that we have free will, and that the rescue package of Jesus Christ was already part of His plan even in the days of Genesis. A second example of incorrect assumptions is that most laymen would agree that the devil tempted Eve to eat of the fruit. However, nowhere in Genesis is the serpent (who actually did the tempting) equated with the devil. The devil, Satam, Beelzebub, Lucifer - however you wish to name him - is never mentioned in Genesis.Therefore, we must put aside preconceptions when looking at this ancient and important text - and that means also putting aside preconceptions about the writer/writers, the style, the reasons for writing and the depth underneath the superficial story. for it is only when we really study God's word that we begin to understand the mind of God and begin to have the ability to do His will.
Economic reforms in India since 1991?
INDIATRYING TO LIBERALISE:ECONOMIC REFORMS SINCE 1991CHARAN D. WADHVA1INTRODUCTIONThe foundation of credible national security is based on the level ofeconomic prosperity and well-being of the population of any country. This isespecially so for developing countries like India. The attainment of sustainedhigh economic growth is a necessary condition for improving the nationalsecurity and the quality of life of the people throughout the country.Many developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region, including China andIndia where nearly one third of the world's population live, are currently goingthrough economic transitions. The central objective of transition througheconomic liberalization is to improve the competitive efficiency of theeconomy in the global marketplace to sustain accelerated rates of economicgrowth and thereby continuously improve the security and well being of thepeople.India launched its market-oriented economic reforms in 1991. Chinalaunched similar reforms from 1978 and is now well ahead of India inintegrating its national economy with the global economy. However, India isslowly but surely catching up in this race. The contrast in the experiences ofthese two countries with economic reforms under radically different politicalsystems is remarkable. While comparisons between China and India are oftenmade by development analysts and are inevitable when we discuss economictransitions in Asia, a more realistic assessment of the experiences of both thesemajor countries of Asia can only be made if we explicitly take into account thestark contrast in their political systems.In India, post-1991 economic reforms have been evolutionary andincremental in nature. There have been delays and reverses in some areas dueto the interplay of democratic politics, coalition governments, and pressuregroups with vested interests. However, each of the five successivegovernments that have held office in India since 1991 have carried on these1 I thank Dr. N K Paswan for his help in preparing the statistical tables included in this paper.259ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA260economic reforms, which have been based on market liberalization and alarger role for private enterprise.WHY THE POST-1990 REFORMS?It is well known that from 1951 to 1991, Indian policy-makers stuck to apath of centralized economic planning accompanied by extensive regulatorycontrols over the economy. The strategy was based on an 'inward-lookingimport substitution' model of development. This was evident from the designof the country's Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61), which had been heavilyinfluenced by the Soviet model of development.2 Several official and expertreviews undertaken by the government recommended incrementalliberalization of the economy in different areas, but these did not address thefundamental issues facing the economy.3India's economy went through several episodes of economic liberalizationin the 1970s and the 1980s under Prime Minsters Indira Gandhi and, later,Rajiv Gandhi. However, these attempts at economic liberalization were halfhearted,self-contradictory, and often self-reversing in parts.4 In contrast, theeconomic reforms launched in the 1990s (by Prime Minister P V NarasimhaRao and Dr. Manmohan Singh as his Finance Minister) were 'much wider anddeeper'5 and decidedly marked a 'U-turn' in the direction of economic policyfollowed by India during the last forty years of centralized economic planning.6THE DRIVING FORCES BEHIND THE REFORMSAs in many developing countries, India also launched its massive economicreforms in 1991 under the pressure of economic crises.7 The twin crises werereflected through an unmanageable balance of payments crisis and a socially2 See Government of India, Second Five-Year Plan, (New Delhi, 1956).3 Reference may be made to following illustrative books for tracking down these 'tinkering'changes in the thinking of Indian policy makers and planners : Bimal Jalan ed., The IndianEconomy: Reforms and Prospects, (New Delhi : Viking Publishers, 1991); Charan D Wadhva ed.,Some Problems of India's Economic Policy (New Delhi : Tata McGraw Hill, 2ed 1977); and CharanD Wadhva, Economic Reforms in India and the Market Economy (New Delhi: Allied Publishers,1994), Ch. II.4 See for example, John Harris, 'The state in Retreat? Why has India experienced such HalfheartedLiberalization in the 80s? IDS Bulletin(Institute of Development Studies, Sussex,U.K.), Vol. 18, No. 4, 1987.5 Jeffrey D Sachs; Ashutosh Varshney; and Nirupam Bajpai eds., Indiain the Era of EconomicReforms (New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1991), p.1.6 Charan D Wadhva, Economic Reforms, op.cit., p.xviii7 For details of magnitude and diagnosis of causes of this economic crisis, see Ibid.CHARAN WADHVA261intolerably high rate of inflation that were building up in the 1980s andclimaxed in 1990-91.8 This can be seen from the data provided in Table 1.9The current account deficit as a percentage of GDP peaked at a high of 3.1percent (compared to an average level of 1.4 percent in the early 1980s). Theinflation rate (as measured by point-to-point changes in the Wholesale PriceIndex) had also climbed to the socially and politically dangerous double-digitlevel, hitting 12.1 percent in 1990-91.TABLE 1: SELECTEDMACRO ECONOMIC INDICATORS1989-2003Indicators 1989-90 1994-95 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03A. Growth of GDP (%) 5.6 6.3 6.1 4.4 5.6 4.4B. GDP Growth by Sectors (%):i. Agriculture & Allied 2.7 4.9 0.3 -0.4 5.7 -3.1ii. Industry, of Which Manufacturing 6.7 8.3 4.0 7.3 3.4 6.1iii. Services 6.7 6.0 10.1 5.6 6.8 7.1C. Inflation Rate (WPI Index (%)) 9.1 10.4 4.8 2.5 5.2 3.2D. Current Account Balance as % of GDP -3.1 -1.1 -0.5 -0.5 naE. Foreign Exchange Reserves (US $ Bn.) 3.37 19.65 35.06 39.55 51.05 69.89F. Exchange Rates (Rs/US $) 16.6 31.4 43.33 45.51 47.69 48.44G. Rate of Growth of :i. Exports (%) 18.9 18.4 10.8 21.0 -1.6 20.4ii. Imports (%) 8.8 22.9 17.2 1.7 1.7 14.5iii. Exports as % of GDP 6.4 9.6 9.1 10.4 9.9 naiv. Imports as % of GDP 9.3 10.5 12.4 11.8 11.6 naH. Fiscal Deficit as % of GDP 7.9 4.7 5.4 5.6 5.9 5.5I. Revenue Deficit as % of GDP 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.1 4.2 3.9J. Saving Ratio as % of GDP 22.3 24.9 24.1 23.4 24.0 naK. Investment as % of GDP 24.9 25.4 25.2 24.0 23.7 naSource: Ministry of Finance, Government of India, Economic Survey, (NewDelhi, various years).Most economic policy makers and analysts held widely convergent viewson the causes of the unprecedented economic crisis faced by India in 1990-91.The root cause of the twin crisis could be traced to macro-economicmismanagement throughout the 1980s as reflected in an unsustainably high8 This can be seen from all references cited in footnotes 1,2,4 and 5. In addition see, VijayJoshi and I.M.D. Little, India's Economic Reforms 1991-2001 (Delhi, Oxford University Press,1997).9 Other data used in the text (that is, not in the tables) is taken from Ministry of Finance,Government of India, Economic Survey (New Delhi, various years) unless otherwise noted.ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA262fiscal deficit, in particular the revenue deficit and the monetized deficit.10 Thecentral government's fiscal deficit alone peaked at 7.9 percent as a percentageof GDP in 1989-90. Thus growing fiscal profligacy (and irresponsibility) andthe unviable financing patterns of the fiscal deficit prevailing in the 1980smade high levels of annual GDP growth (peaking at 5.6 percent in 1989-90)unsustainable.11 Foreign-exchange reserves dwindled to a low of US$2.2 billion(with less than 15 days' cover against annual imports). India stared bankruptcyin the face as it struggled to meet external debt obligations.Prime Minister Narasimha Rao converted the prevailing economic crisisinto an opportunity to launch massive economic reforms. First, he introducedan economist (rather than a politician) into the Cabinet as Finance Ministerand gave the new Minister his full support, allowing him to evolve andimplement path-breaking economic reforms. The new economic policiesradically departed from the economic policies and regulatory frameworkpursued in India during the previous forty years.12The Rao government recognized in 1991 that the time had come toreshape India's economic policies by drawing appropriate lessons from the'East Asian Miracle' based on more export-oriented and more globallyconnected strategies of development, as successfully practiced earlier by Japanand South Korea and also by the South East Asian tigers Malaysia, Singapore,Indonesia and Thailand.13 The East Asian development model had beenremarkably successful in achieving sustained high growth rates accompaniedby rapid growth in the living standards of the people in just two decades. Indiahad missed on both these fronts by relentlessly pursing import substitutionand a relatively closed economy model of development.The Rao government, after launching the relatively aggressive (by pastIndian standards) reforms, was soon confronted with the political constraintsof 'competitive populism' during elections held at the state level in 1993.Therefore, the government adopted a 'middle path', furthering the economic10 For further details, see Wadhva, Economic Reforms, op.cit., ch. I.11 Thus the claim that India had clearly transcended the so-called 'Hindu rate of growth' ofGDP at 3.5 percent per annum (trend annual growth rate) achieved for the two decades of1960s and 1970s and had moved over to higher annual average growth rate of 5.5 percent inthe 1980s could not be accepted since the latter jump proved to be financially unsustainable.12 The major economic reforms launched during the full five-year tenure of the NarasimhaRao Government (1991-96) are highlighted below.13 There are of course, lessons to be learnt by India from the 'East Asian debacle' of 1997-98(the so-called 'East Asian Financial Crisis) but these need not detract us here as most SouthAsian and Southeast Asian countries had overcome this crisis by 1999.CHARAN WADHVA263reforms in an 'incremental' fashion in order to continue to extending theirwidth and depth during the remainder of the government's term.The government took two years to get over the immediate macroeconomiccrisis, initially with the help of a balance of payments loan facilityfrom the International Monetary Fund. The government came out with a clearenunciation of its vision and the objectives of its economic reforms only afterregaining macro-economic stability. This was contained in the DiscussionPaper on Economic Reforms brought out by the Ministry of Finance in July1993. To quote:The fundamental objective of economic reforms is to bring aboutrapid and sustained improvement in the quality of the people ofIndia. Central to this goal is the rapid growth in incomes andproductive employment… The only durable solution to the curse ofpoverty is sustained growth of incomes and employment…. Suchgrowth requires investment: in farms, in roads, in irrigation, inindustry, in power and, above all, in people. And this investmentmust be productive. Successful and sustained development dependson continuing increases in the productivity of our capital, our landand our labour.Within a generation, the countries of East Asia have transformedthemselves. China, Indonesia, Korea, Thailand and Malaysia todayhave living standards much above ours…. What they have achieved,we must strive for.14MAJOR ECONOMIC REFORMSEconomic reforms launched since June 1991 may be categorized undertwo broad areas:?? major macro-economic management reforms; and?? structural and sector-specific economic reformsNaturally, the attention of the new government that took office in June1991 was primarily focused on crisis management dealing with the balance ofpayments. It was of the utmost importance to restore India's internationalcredibility by meeting its scheduled external debt liabilities and throughmaintaining a more realistic exchange rate consistent with market obligations.Achieving macro-economic stabilization was also an urgent priority,necessitating control of intolerably high inflation. It was recognized that14 Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Department of Economic Affairs, 'EconomicReforms : Two Years After and the Task Ahead', Discussion Paper, New Delhi : July 1993,pp.1-2.ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA264macro-economic stabilization would provide a sound foundation for mediumandlong-term structural economic reforms and accelerate the rate ofeconomic growth in a sustained manner. This would be possible by removingdistortions created by controls and by improving the competitive edge forIndian goods and services in global markets as well as in the markets of majorregional trading blocs.I describe below the major economic reforms, with greater focus onstructural economic reforms in selected sectors of the economy.15MACRO-ECONOMICMANAGEMENT REFORMSMacro-economic management reforms have focused on controlling thepolitically difficult problems of reducing the fiscal and (even more so) revenuedeficits. The capital account deficit does not pose long-term problems asinvestment in productive capital made in the present, if prudently carried out,will generate an adequate income stream to pay for capital costs incurred andgenerate positive returns in the future.India's problem is primarily in the area of revenue deficits. From 1950 to1980 the national budget was usually characterized by revenue surpluses andcapital account deficits . However, after 1980, all (democratic) governmentsfor political reasons had willingly allowed the revenue deficit to rise over theyears to dangerously high levels, and had found it increasingly difficult toreduce. The revenue deficits reflected an excess of annual consumptionexpenditure by the government over its annual income. The deficit was causedby excessive employment in the government sectors, uneconomical pricing ofgoods and services by public sector enterprises, a growing interest burden,mounting subsidies, and rising defense expenditures. Downsizing thegovernment (through the bureaucracy or public sector enterprises and banks)was also difficult and met staff resistance from the organized employees.Attempts at Reducing the Fiscal DeficitFaced with the necessity of reducing the fiscal deficit in the crisis year of1991-92, Finance Minister Singh attempted to reduce fertilizer and foodsubsidies in 1991-92 and to some extent in 1992-93. Simultaneously, he (andseveral subsequent finance ministers) resorted to the softer options ofreducing public investment expenditure and reducing public expenditure onsocial welfare services from 1991 to 1995. These measures did help reduce thefiscal deficit of the central government to 4.8 percent of GDP at the end of15 I have drawn upon various annual issues of Economic Survey produced by the Government ofIndia(Ministry of Finance) for this section.CHARAN WADHVA2651992-93. However, further cuts in fertilizer and food subsidies could not becarried out as these measures were opposed in Parliament and proved suicidalfor the ruling Congress Party, which lost power in state elections in 1993-94.Meanwhile, the fiscal position of the state governments also starteddeteriorating. The combined fiscal deficit of the central government and thestates climbed to the unacceptably high level of 10-11 percent of GDP in2002-03. Some state governments have begun to address their fiscal deficitproblems. The central government has recently started linking further transfersof resources to the states to the progress of state-specific economic reformsaimed at reducing deficits.16The good news for macro-economic management reforms is that the pre-1990 pattern of 'deficit financing' (that is, the printing of currency) to meet thefiscal deficit has now been effectively curbed. The autonomy of the centralbank (the Reserve Bank of India) in regulating the money supply to controlinflation has been assured within the limits of monetary policy. This has ledthe government to resort to larger and larger domestic borrowing.The bad news is that government borrowings have risen so high that theeconomy is moving towards an 'internal debt trap'.17 Further growth ofinternal debt needs to be curbed but the government is in no mood to closeoff this easy way of financing its rising fiscal deficit. The finances of most stategovernments are in even poorer shape and some have occasionally resorted tomarket borrowings to meet their payrolls.Tax ReformsSince 1991 several efforts have been made through the annual budgetprocess to achieve tax reforms.18 These have focused on: (i) expanding the taxbase by including services (not previously taxed); (ii) reducing rates of directtaxes for individuals and corporations; (iii) abolishing most export subsidies,(iv) lowering import duties (covered below by us under structural reformsrelating to trade policies/external sector); (v) rationalizing sales tax andreducing the cascading effect of central indirect taxes by introducing aModified Value Added Tax and a soon-to-be implemented nationwide ValueAdded Tax; (vi) rationalizing both direct and indirect taxes by removingunnecessary exemptions; (vii) providing for tax incentives for infrastructure16 For details see Government of India, Economic Survey 2002-03.17 It is estimated that the interest payments currently pre-empt more than 60 percent of thetotal revenue of the central government leaving very little resources for fresh publicinvestment. See Economic Survey 2002-03.18 For details see the relevant official annual documents for the Union Budget usuallypresented by the Finance Minister to the Parliament each year on February 28, 2003.ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA266and export-oriented sectors, including setting up special (Export) EconomicZones; and (viii) simplification of procedures and efforts for improving theefficiency of the tax administration system especially throughcomputerization.19Resource Generation through DivestmentThe governments of India, both at the central and state government levels,have initiated divestment programs to sell government equity in severalpublic-sector enterprises. Unfortunately, the sales proceeds have mostly beenused to finance fiscal deficits rather than for fresh public investment, socialsectorspending, or reducing the interest burden on ballooning public debt.STRUCTURAL ECONOMICREFORMSStructural reforms since 1991 have been sector-specific. The sectorssubjected to reform have been carefully selected and the coverage of sectorsunder structural reforms has been extended over time. The major structuraleconomic reforms carried out since 1991 have been primarily in the followingareas: Trade Policy/External Sector; Industrial Policy; Infrastructural SectorPolicies; Divestment/Privatization Policies; the Financial Sector; and inPolicies for Attracting Foreign Direct Investment.20The thrust of the reforms in all areas has been to open India's markets tointernational competition, remove exchange rate controls, encourage privateinvestment and participation in industry and, in the finance markets, toliberalise access to foreign capital and to ensure that foreign investment is notpenalized merely for being foreign.2119 For the latest proposals for tax reforms, see the two (published) reports of the Committeeon Reforms of Direct and Indirect Taxes (Chairman Dr. Vijay L Kelkar), New Delhi :Government of India, Ministry of Finance, 2003.20 It may be pointed out that in the vital areas of macro-economic policy including fiscal policymonetary policy and exchange rate policy, there is an overlap between macroeconomicstabilization policies and structural reforms. The long-term growth inducing roles of all macroeconomicpolicies can be considered under structural reforms. We focus here on sectorspecificreforms although overlaps exist with agro-economic policies in our discussion. For anannual overview of structural reforms carried out in India, see Government of India EconomicSurvey for the relevant year (latest available being 2002-03).21 Financial sector reforms were initiated on the basis of two reports by the NarasimhamCommittee. Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Report of the Committee on FinancialSystem (Chairman : Mr. M Narasimham), New Delhi : November 1991; and Report of theCommittee on Banking Sector Reforms (Chairman : Mr. M Narasimham), New Delhi 1996.CHARAN WADHVA267Reorientation of PlanningConsistent with the spirit of the market-oriented and private sector-ledeconomic reforms launched since 1991, the government has reoriented therole of planning in India. It has been recognized that market forces and thestate should be given roles that play to their comparative advantages and thatthey should work together as partners in the economic development of thenation. While private initiative should be encouraged in most areas of businessactivities, the state should increasingly play a pro-active role in areas in whichthe private sector is either unwilling to act or is incapable of regulating itself inthe social interest. The areas in which the state has a comparative advantageover the private sector include poverty alleviation programs; human resourcedevelopment; provision of social services such as primary health and primaryeducation; and similar activities categorized as building human capital andsocial infrastructure. The state also has a new role in setting up independentregulatory authorities to encourage genuine competition and to oversee theprovision of services by the private sector in critical areas such as utilities,water supply, telecommunications, and stock market operations to avoid the illeffects of speculation and to maintain a workable balance between the interestsof the producer and the consumers.Economic liberalization in the organized manufacturing sector (subjectedto rigid labor laws for retrenchment) has led to growth with very littleadditional employment. This can create serious social unrest and fertile groundfor terrorist and other anti-social activities that attract unemployed youths inthe absence of gainful employment. Market-based economic reforms alsooften lead to increasing disparities between the rich and the poor and betweeninfrastructurally backward and more developed states. The government has tointervene and calibrate the contents and speed of market-based economicreforms to more effectively address the specific areas of 'market failures andweaknesses' to optimize growth with social justice.The new role assigned to planning, consistent with market-based economicliberalization, can perhaps best be illustrated with the goals and the strategiesincorporated in India's Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-07).22 The Plan hastargeted an annual growth rate of eight percent. Along with this growth target,the government has laid down targets for human and social development.Timely corrective actions will be proposed to ensure growth is accompaniedby social justice. The key indicators of human and social development targeted22 See, Government of India, Tenth Five Year Plan 2002-07 (in three volumes) (New Delhi :Planning Commission, 2002).ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA268under this Plan include: a reduction of the poverty rate by five percentagepoints by 2007; providing gainful employment to at least those who join thelabor force during 2002-07; education for all children in schools by 2003; andan increase in the literacy rate to 75 percent by March 2007.The development strategy adopted for the Tenth plan envisages:redefining the role of Government in the context of the emergenceof a strong and vibrant private sector, the need for provision ofinfrastructure and the need for imparting greater flexibility in fiscaland monetary policies. With a view to emphasizing the importanceof balanced development of all states, the Tenth plan includes astate-wise break-up of broad developmental targets including targetsfor growth rates and social development consistent with nationaltargets. The Tenth Plan has emphasized the need to ensure equityand social justice, taking into account the fact that rigidities in theeconomy can make the poverty-reducing effects of growth lesseffective. The strategy for equity and social justice consists of makingagricultural development a core element of the Plan, ensuring rapidgrowth of those sectors which are most likely to create gainfulemployment opportunities and supplementing the impact of growthwith special programs aimed at target groups.23THE POLITICAL ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF THE REFORMSIndia's heterogeneity and unity in diversity through a stable democraticsystem must be appreciated. A country like India, with more than one billionpeople, some 16 officially recognized major languages, and vast ethnic andreligious diversities, poses major governance challenges. India has achievedremarkable success in holding the country together.India had governed its economy through a policy regime of centralizedplanning accompanied by an extensive regulatory framework for more thanforty years before it launched economic reforms in 1991. It has, therefore, notbeen easy to change the mindsets of policy makers (especially at the lowerlevels of bureaucracy) and of other beneficiaries of the entrenched regime.Building a political consensus on economic reforms across the variouspolitical parties with their vastly different ideologies has been a very difficultprocess. This has been especially true under coalition governments but alsoeven when a single party has held a majority. Consensus building and reform23 As summarized in Government of India, Economic Survey 2002-03, pp.41-42.CHARAN WADHVA269implementation is complicated further when the central government and thestates are in the hands of different parties (or coalitions).The rapidly increasing frequency of elections at the central and state levelsduring the post-1990 period of economic reforms has led the incumbentgovernments and the contesting opposition parties to resort to 'vote-bank'politics or 'competitive populism'. The vested interests of groups such as tradeunions, producers with licenses and holding monopoly interests, andbureaucrats with 'rent seeking' capabilities have often scuttled or delayedfurther market-based economic reforms. These factors explain well India's'stalled' reforms in certain areas directly hurting vested interests of selectedlobby groups.24 The growth of regional parties and their assumption of powerin many Indian states has further delayed the percolation of central-leveleconomic reforms down to the state level.Weiner has recommended the need for a change in the mindsets of statepolicy makers:The pursuit of market-friendly policies by state governments requiresa change in the mindsets of state politicians, new skills within thestate bureaucracies, and a different kind of politics. Morefundamentally, it requires rethinking on the part of state politicians,activists in non-governmental organizations, journalists andpolitically engaged citizens as to what is the proper role ofgovernment, and how and to what end limited resources should beused.25Considering the compulsions arising from the above political factors,Montek S. Ahluwalia explains the rational for adopting the 'gradualist'approach in implementing of economic reforms and the resultant 'frustratinglyslow' pace of reforms (compared to East Asian standards):The compulsions of democratic politics in a pluralist society made itnecessary to evolve a sufficient consensus across disparate (and oftenvery vocal) interests before policy change could be implemented andthis meant that the pace of reforms was often frustratingly slow.Daniel Yergin (1998) captures the mood of frustration when hewonders whether the Hindu rate of growth has been replaced by theHindu rate of change!2624 See, 'Introduction' in Jeffrey D. Sachs, Ashutosh Varshney and Nirupam Bajpai, op.cit.25 Myron Weiner, 'The regionalization of India's Politics and It's Implications for EconomicReforms' in Ibid., Ch. 8, pp.292-3.26 Montek S Ahluwalia, 'India's Economic Reforms: An Appraisal', in Ibid., pp.26-27. See alsoDaniel Yergin, The Commanding Heights, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998.ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA270Finally, most (if not all) political parties implementing market-basedeconomic reforms since 1990 have failed to 'market' these reforms to themasses as being highly beneficial for them. The opposition parties have oftentermed these reforms as 'pro-rich' and 'anti-poor'. Ironically, even theCongress Party, which initiated the economic reforms when in power, has, asan opposition party, opposed some of them (such as further public-sectordivestments) Varshney has made a valid distinction between 'elite-based'reforms versus 'mass-based' reforms. Market-based reforms have not drawnmass appeal nor aroused mass passions. This dichotomy between the concernsof the urban elite and the mass of the population has clearly defined the limitsto economic reforms in India.27STATE-LEVEL ECONOMIC REFORMSTo increase the effectiveness of the post-1990 economic reforms, theymust be simultaneously extended from central to state governments and belowto the third tier of local governments.The maladies afflicting the finances of the state governments are similar innature to those afflicting the central finances described earlier. According tothe Reserve Bank of India, the Gross Fiscal Deficit of all the states of India(including the Union Territories) was estimated at 3.3 percent in 1991-92.28Throughout the 1990s the state governments also experienced a rapid rise intheir revenue expenditures mainly through salaries, pensions, interest paymentsand subsidies (including free power to farmers in some states out of politicalconsiderations). This trend has 'severely constrained the states' ability toundertake development activities' and to devote more funds to provide socialservices such as primary education.29 The situation worsened after the stateswere forced to follow the center to implement generous pay increases forgovernment employees recommended by the Fifth Central Pay Commission in1997-98.Despite initial resistance in the Communist Party-ruled state of WestBengal, all state governments (including West Bengal), in their own ways andsuiting their own conditions, implemented economic reforms in the 1990s andare continuing these reforms broadly in line with the ongoing nationaleconomic reforms. This owes in part to enlightened self-interest combined27 For further details, see Ashutosh Varshney, 'Mass Politics or Elite Politics?', in Jeffrey DSachs, Ashutosh Varshney and Nirupam Bajpai, op.cit., Ch.7.28 Reserve Bank of India, 'Finances of state Governments : 1992-93', in the Reserve Bank ofIndiaBulletin, March 1993.29 Government of India, Economic Survey 2002-03, op.cit, p.5.CHARAN WADHVA271with a healthy competitive spirit designed to improve their position andranking among the states. There is also the states' desire to avail themselves oflarger transfers of development funds from the center, which the centralgovernment linked to economic reforms at the state level. Every state hasrecognized the need to attract private investment flows from both domesticand foreign investors. State governments have therefore progressivelyliberalized their policies and procedures on a competitive basis. Several ofthem have also explicitly recognized the need to improve human resourcedevelopment and have progressively expanded activities to provide a betterquality of life to the population of their states.Incentives and ConditionalitiesThe government of India has introduced a scheme called the States' FiscalReforms Facility (2000-05). Under the Facility, the central government set up afive-year incentive fund 'to encourage states to implement monitorable fiscalreforms'. Additional amounts by way of 'open market borrowings' are allowedif the state is faced with a structural adjustment burden. State governmentsmay draw up a Medium Term Fiscal Reforms Programme (MTFRP) to achievespecified targeted reductions in their consolidated fiscal deficit, especially therevenue deficit.The coverage of the MTFRP has been extended to cover a Debt SwapScheme in order to help state governments reduce their growing public debt.This scheme is designed to help liquidate the burden of high-cost loans takenfrom the central government through the allocation of additional marketborrowings at currently prevailing lower interest rates.The major structural reforms carried out by several state governmentsinclude:(i) Measures to improve quality of life through improvements in basicpublic services such as primary health, primary education, and ruralinfrastructural services such as electricity, water, and roads. Madhya Pradeshhas brought out the first state-level Human Resource Development Report. Otherstates have followed suit. The Planning Commission has also published acomprehensive National Human Development Reportassessing humandevelopment nationwide and in the major states.30(ii) Clustering high-tech industries and services (for example, in softwareparks).30 Government of India, National Human Development Report 2001 (New Delhi : PlanningCommission, 2002).ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA272(iii) Setting up Special Economic Zones and Agri-Economic Zones topromote exports.(iv) Formulating state-level industrial policies to attract investments.(v) Power-sector reforms that restructure state Electricity Boards byseparating generation, transmission and distribution activities, encouragingindependent power producers in the private sector to invest in the powersector, and setting up independent state Electricity Regulatory Authorities.THE PERFORMANCE OF THE INDIAN ECONOMYDespite the slow pace of implementation of the economic reforms andcertain hiccups and delays caused primarily by the compulsions of democraticpolitics, the performance of the Indian economy under the reforms carried outso far shows a mixed picture of notable achievements and weaknesses. Theperformance has been impressive on some fronts, satisfactory on several otherfronts, and inadequate in certain respects. India has still to launch deeper (socalled'second-generation') reforms in various areas to get the best results.Areas of Impressive PerformanceThrough reform, India overcame its worst economic crisis in theremarkably short period of two years. Macro-economic stabilization reforms(along with structural economic reforms) were launched in June 1991.Through prudent macro-economic stabilization policies including devolutionof the rupee and other structural economic reforms the balance of paymentscrisis was clearly over by the end of March 1994. Foreign exchange reserveshad risen to the more than adequate level of US$15.07 billion and the currentaccount deficit as a percentage of GDP was nearly eliminated. Export growthrate at 20.0 percent in 1993-94 over the previous year was quite encouraging.Macro-economic stability has endured in the ten years of economicreforms to 2003. Foreign-exchange reserves peaked at US$70 billion at the endof March 2003 (and touched US$80 billion in June 2003).31 The currentaccount 'recorded a surplus-equivalent to 0.3 percent of GDP-in 2001-02'.32 Food stocks with the Food Corporation of India, held to ensure nationalfood security, peaked at sixty million tons (compared to the required twentymillion tons). It took longer to control inflation but this led to relatively moreenduring results (excluding the impact of externally determined fuel prices).Since 2002, the country has enjoyed a low interest-rate regime. These31 The Rupee had started appreciating against US$ after April 2003.32 Government of India, Economic Survey 2002-03, op.cit., p.3.CHARAN WADHVA273performance indicators have helped to provide an 'enabling environment forthe macroeconomic policy stance.'33India has also increasingly integrated its economy with the global economy.After half a century of inward-orientation, the share of India's trade as aproportion of GDP rose from 13.1 percent in 1990 to 20.3 percent in 2000. ByIndian standards this is an impressive performance.India's economy has also successfully moved into a higher trajectory ofgrowth and displayed strong dynamism in selected sectors. This encouragingperformance brightens the prospects for stepping up India's growth rate andimproving the competitive edge in the years to come through furtherappropriate economic reforms.The average annual growth rate of 5.8 percent achieved by the Indianeconomy during the years of economic reforms since 1992 is encouraging.Currently, after China, India is among the fastest-growing countries in Asia.Since the annual rate of population growth has slowed significantly to nearly1.8 percent during the 1990s, per capita income has been growing at a healthierreal rate of four percent per annum.India's growing middle class of more than 350 million people, with areasonably affluent standard of living, provides a huge market for foreigncorporations, especially since April 2003, when all quantitative restrictions onimports were lifted.Along with its fairly good growth rate (which, however, is far below thepotential growth rate of eight percent targeted by India's Tenth Five-YearPlan), India has been successful in reducing poverty. The poverty ratio (that is,people below the poverty line as a percentage of the population) as estimatedby the Planning Commission at the national level came down from 36 percentin 1993-94 to 26.1 percent in 1999-2000. The poverty ratio during this perioddeclined both in rural areas and in urban areas. There is little doubt thatpoverty in India has been reduced during the last decade. The PlanningCommission has set a poverty ratio target of 19.3 percent by the end of theTenth Plan period (to March 2007).An important indicator of gains from economic reforms, reflecting theattractiveness of India as an investment destination, is shown by the increasinginflows of both FDI and Foreign Institutional Investment (FII) into India.Inflows of both FDI and FII into India has increased in the decade to 2002.On average, according to the Ministry of Finance's Economic Survey, India has33 Reserve Bank of India, Annual Report 2001-02, Mumbai, Reserve Bank of India, p.1.ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA274been attracting US$2.5 billion to US$3 billion and nearly US$4 billion in 2001-02 in FDI per annum mostly in various infrastructural sectors such as largepower and telecommunication projects.India's economy under the reforms has made rapid strides in selectedindustrial areas and knowledge- and skill-intensive services. These specificgrowth areas have experienced significant restructuring under morecompetitive conditions in the marketplace through mergers and acquisitionsand technological and managerial innovations. This has led to the achievementof recognizable increases in international competitiveness in a number ofsectors including auto components, telecommunications, software,pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, research and development, and professionalservices provided by scientists, technologists, doctors, nurses, teachers,management professionals and similar professions. The spillover effects ofIndia's increasing international competitiveness have helped in improving therate of growth of export earnings. They have also directly benefited Indianconsumers by making better quality, lower-priced goods available.Areas of WeaknessThe most notable weakness of the reform process has been in fiscalconsolidation. Indian governments at both the central and state levels havefailed miserably to reign in growing revenue deficits and reduce the overallfiscal deficit. The foundations for a sustainable high growth rate in anyeconomy lie in maintaining fiscal discipline. This has not been adequatelyachieved by Indian policymakers. Excessive use of market borrowing to coverbudget deficits has often put upward pressure on interest rates and pre-empted('crowded out') borrowings by the private sector. The structure of revenueexpenditure and political obstacles to any reduction of subsidies anddownsizing the government at all levels have been primarily responsible forthe lack of progress on fiscal reforms. The real issue in restructuringgovernment finances is 'right-sizing' the government by adequately increasinggovernment expenditure on infrastructure of both the hard and soft varieties,based upon growing resources.India's record on social development expenditure has been poorconsidering Indian requirements and poor also in relation to many developingcountries, including some of the least developed countries in Sub-SaharanAfrica. The abysmally low ranking of India on the Human DevelopmentIndices computed by the United Nations bears testimony to this assertion.34Dreze and Sen remarked in 1995 that India's social development indicators in34 United Nations, Human Development Report, available annually at http://hdr.undp.org.CHARAN WADHVA2751991 (when reforms were launched) were lower than in several East andSoutheast Asian countries three decades ago.35India must bridge this social development gap by significantly increasing itspublic expenditure on social services if it wishes to achieve the targeted annualgrowth rate of eight percent set by the country's Tenth Plan. As Ahluwalia hasremarked, larger investment in the social sectors is 'necessary not only becausesocial development is an end in itself, but also as a precondition of acceleratinggrowth'.36The massive shift required in the pattern of government expenditure inIndia in favor of social sectors and infrastructure can only be carried outthrough structural fiscal reforms. The Fiscal Responsibility and BudgetManagement (FRBM) Act (2003) provides for complete elimination of therevenue deficit by 31 March 2008. This Act is, therefore, a step in the rightdirection. Despite 'dilution' of the original draft bill, it is important legislationbecause it sets the condition that the government can run a fiscal deficit only ifborrowings are made to finance investments which will enhance productivecapacity'.37Another major weakness of the Indian economic reforms is the economy'sexperience with 'jobless growth' in the post-1990 period. Rigid labor lawsrelating to retrenchments have constricted growth in the organizedmanufacturing sector. As a labor surplus country, there already exists a hugebacklog of both 'open' and 'disguised' unemployment. With a growingpopulation, every year adds to the labor force. Economic reforms haveaccelerated growth but failed to generate adequate employment. For example,the rural unemployment rate, after declining to 5.61 percent in 1993-94, roseto 7.21 percent in 1999-2000 as did the All-India (urban plus rural) rate ofunemployment. If this disturbing trend is allowed to continue, it will breedsocial unrest and add to the ranks of terrorists and other anti-social elements inthe country.Last but not least, the reforms have led to growing disparities betweenricher and poorer states (more and less developed, especially in terms ofinfrastructure) within India. Although the all-India average annual growth ratein the reform era has been on the order of 5.8 percent, this masks wide35 Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunities, (New Delhi :Oxford University Press, 1995).36 M S Ahluwalia, op.cit., p.74.37 C Rangarajan, 'Focus on Revenue Deficit', Business Line (New Delhi), June 10, 2003, p.4ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA276variations in inter-state growth rates, growth of per capita income, and socialdevelopment.Most state governments are not well prepared to meet the challengesposed by globalization. The farming sector and the innumerable small-scaleindustrial units are vulnerable to the impact of global competition. Thegovernment and economic players in the private sector need to work moreclosely as partners to evolve strategies to meet the challenges of globalcompetition more effectively.THE ECONOMY IN THE INTERNATIONAL ARENAThe Indian economy has been moving towards closer integration with theglobal economy and with the leading regional trading blocs. This can be seenusing three indicators: (i) Trade in goods and services as a proportion of GDP;(ii) Gross Private Capital (In)flows; and (iii) Gross Foreign Direct Investmentas a proportion of GDP. In all three areas, China has had the mostoutstanding performance and is clearly far ahead of India. However, within theconstraints of democratic politics (which have forced India to adoptincremental and relatively 'softer' economic reforms), and despite being a latestarter in the economic reform process, India can be seen to have done'reasonably well' in globalizing its economy. The ratio of trade to GDPincreased from 13.1 percent in 1990 to 20.3 percent in 2000. The proportionof Gross Capital Inflows to GDP during the same period increased from 0.8percent to 3.0 percent. Gross Foreign Direct Investment as a percentage ofGDP (which was zero in 1990) rose to 0.6 percent in 2000.India's trading relations with major regional trading blocs in 1990 and 2000can be seen in Table 2. For the year 2000, APEC countries were India's largesttrading partners, accounting for 47.4 percent of India's global exports and 57.4percent of global imports. India has, therefore, shown keen interest in joiningthis forum. Unfortunately, APEC has currently imposed a moratorium on newmembership.There is naturally a sharp contrast between India and East Asian countriesin their relative rates of export growth due to sharp differences in their exportstrategies. The contrast is the sharpest when we compare India and China forthe period 1950-2000. In 1950, both had roughly similar shares in world trade.China pursued a more aggressive export strategy in 1978 when it createdexport-oriented Special Economic Zones in Southern China. By 2000, Chinahad captured around 4.0 percent of world trade. In contrast, India's share ofworld trade had stagnated at around 0.5 percent for the three decades 1960-90CHARAN WADHVA277due to its inward-looking policies.38 By 2000, this share had moved up to 0.7percent. India has formulated and is further strengthening its latest Medium-Term Export Strategy (MTES) (2002-07), coinciding with the period of theTenth Five-Year Plan.TABLE 2: TRENDS ANDPROJECTIONS FOR INDIA'SEXTERNAL TRADE 2000-2025Year Exports to Imports from1990 2000 2020 1990 2000 2020Actual/Projected A P p A P PIndia's Global Exportsand Imports (US $Billion)18.2 37.1 63.6 23.3 41.3 61.21. APEC-21 52.06 47.4 43.44 40.98 58.68 57.412. ASEAN-10 4.99 6.87 7.38 6.92 9.41 13.13. BIMSTEC-4 2.91 4.65 5.45 1.55 1.28 1.454. BISTEC-3 2.9 4.51 5.3 1.55 0.8 0.985. EU-15 27.6 24.76 25.14 36.62 25.72 23.796. GCC-6 5.21 7.17 7.71 8.7 21.05 32.577. IOR-ARC-18 13.55 19.26 22.22 13.4 20.93 30.768. NAFTA-3 17.13 19.65 16.08 11.2 10.14 11.019. SAARC-7 2.65 4.12 4.52 1.78 0.47 0.68Note : A-Actual and P-ProjectedAPEC - 21: Asia Pacific Economic CooperationASEAN-10: Association of South East NationsBIMSTEC-4: Bangladesh-India-Myanmar-Sri Lanka-Thailand EconomicCooperationBISTEC-3:Bangladesh-India-Sri Lanka-Thailand Economic CooperationEU-15: European UnionGCC-6: Gulf Cooperation CouncilIOR-ARC-19: Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional CooperationNAFTA-3: North America Free Trade AreaSAARC-7: South Asia Association for Regional CooperationSource : Charan D. Wadhva, "India's External Sector" Chapter - 12 in theReport of Research Project on India-2025: A Study of the Social, Economic and PoliticalStability, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, May, 2003.38 As per World Bank's annual World Development Report, various issues and other sources.ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA278The MTES for 2002-07 envisages the achievement of India's target of onepercent of global trade by 2007 and provides sector-wide targets for nicheproducts and targets for selected niche markets.39 The active participation ofstate governments is being sought in establishing and strengthening SpecialEconomic Zones (SEZ) modeled on Chinese SEZs and setting up Agri-Economic Zones to provide a strong push to raise the country's export growthrate. The development of world-class infrastructure in the SEZs will take moretime. A new labor policy regime allowing freedom for entrepreneurs in theSEZs to 'hire and fire' labor according to the needs of the market (aspermitted in the highly successful Chinese SEZs) will have to be put in placeto maximize gains from India's SEZs. As of May 2003, eight SEZs had beenapproved and have became operational. More such SEZs will be set up inIndia in the future.India is trying its best to liberalize and to transform itself into a globalplayer of consequence in the world economy by 2020. It has been ranked bythe World Bank as the world's fourth-largest nation in terms of the size ofGNP measures in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) in 2001. Ahead ofIndia in 2001 on this front were only Japan, the US, and China. The WorldBank has projected that by the year 2020, China will take the top spot,followed by India.India's economy clearly is on the move and most certainly has the potentialto emerge as a global economic power within next twenty to twenty-five years.However, this potential can be made a reality only if India mobilizes adequatepolitical will and quickly commits itself to design and fully implement the nextphase deeper 'second-generation reforms'.The concept of 'second-generation' reforms has been in the making forsome years. However, these are yet to take concrete shape. Considering thatIndia currently has no social security system in place for nearly 90 percent ofits labor force employed in the unorganized sectors, India needs to evolve awell-calibrated approach to its future economic reforms. This would also benecessary to meet the challenges posed by the further intensification of theprocess of globalization. However, clear prioritization of future economicreforms in India will have to be laid down during implementation of the mostcritically needed 'second-generation reforms'.39 Government of India, Export Import Policy 2002-07, New Delhi : Ministry of Commerce2002.CHARAN WADHVA279THE NEXT GENERATION OF REFORMSThe following are ten recommended areas of special focus in the secondgeneration of economic reforms:1. Political Reforms for Good Governance;2. Re-engineering the Role of the government;3. Administrative and Legal Reforms;4. Strategic Management of the Economy with a focus on knowledgebasedHRD Activities;5. Fiscal Prudence;6. Agricultural Sector Reforms;7. Industrial Restructuring;8. Labor Sector Reforms;9. Foreign Trade and Outward Investment Policies;10. Financial Sector Reforms.Political Reforms for Good GovernancePolitical reforms are urgently required in concert with economic reforms.40Both are essential to ensure good governance. A paradigm shift is required inthe prevailing system of governance. Serving the people and putting theirinterests above the interests of the ruling elite must be the prime motivatingforce driving the reformed system of governance. Good governance can beensured through the provision of an adequate quantity of public services andby improving their quality. Indian politicians need to become fully aware of thecosts and benefits of economic reforms. Ruling politicians with limited termsin office are often guided by narrow and short-term motivations whileformulating policies in the national interest. The Indian public at large alsoneeds to be thoroughly educated on the inevitable need to bear short-termpain in order to reap the somewhat uncertain longer-term gains fromeconomic reforms.Economic reforms in the future must be more people-centered. They mustbe given a human face so as to continuously enhance the socialempowerments of the poorer and most vulnerable sections of the society.They must be gender-sensitive to improve the status of women and girls. Theburden of adjustment to structural reforms must be more heavily borne by thericher sections of the society. Appropriate electoral reforms, including state40 For a discussion of the required political reforms in India, see Subhash C. Kashyap, PoliticalReforms for Good Governance: A Policy Brief (New Delhi: Shipra Publications, 2003).ECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA280funding of elections, will help to reduce the lobbying power of the entrenchedvested interests.Re-Engineering the Role of the GovernmentReforms must be aimed at 'right-sizing' (often involving downsizing) thegovernment. Governments must specialize in performing roles that they canperform better than free-market private enterprise. The government mustexpand its role in areas such as the provision of public goods, especiallyprimary health, primary education and the creation of social infrastructures.The role of the Planning Commission must be changed to that of a strategicthink tank. The mindset of the politicians and the administrators needs to bechanged to accept the re-engineered role of government in the context ofmarket-oriented economic reforms. The intensification of economic reformsat the state level needs to be given a higher priority in the future since mostsocial services and infrastructural activities are primarily the responsibility ofthe state governments.Administrative and Legal ReformsNo matter how good the design and intent of economic reforms, theirsuccess ultimately depends on efficient and speedy implementation throughsensitive and responsive administrative and legal systems. Transparency andaccountability must be guiding principles for the formulation andimplementation of policies and procedures. Improved administrative systemsshould be devised to ensure that merit subsidies directly benefit the targeted(generally the underprivileged) sections of society. Legal support servicesshould be made available with more public funding and must be strengthenedto provide justice to genuinely aggrieved sections of society more quickly andaffordably.41 Second-generation economic reforms also must focus onchanging the mindset of administrators (especially at the grass-roots level) andof the judiciary (especially at the lower level) to support administrative andlegal reforms that synergize with economic reforms for maximizing socialwelfare.Strategic Management of the EconomyMacroeconomic management must be dovetailed with a well-formulatedstrategic national vision for the economy for the year 2020 (and beyond).Clarity, transparency and accountability (through identifiable responsibilitycenters) with properly designed incentive (and disincentive) systems should bethe guiding principles governing strategic management of the economy. An41 See Subhash C Kashyap (ed.), The Citizen and Judicial Reforms under Indian Polity (New Delhi :Universal Law Publishing Company, 2002).CHARAN WADHVA281appropriate code of conduct should be evolved and observed by economicactors under a new managerial system of governance. The strategicmanagement of the Indian economy in the twenty-first century must focus onhuman resource development to promote knowledge-based and skill-intensiveeconomic activities in line with India's dynamic competitive advantage.Fiscal PrudenceThe fiscal deficit (especially the revenue deficit) needs to be quicklyreduced. India must sincerely implement the Fiscal Responsibility and BudgetManagement Act . Simultaneous action is required at both central and statelevels to raise the tax-to-GDP ratio by expanding the tax base (for example, bytaxing services and rich agriculturists) and improving tax administration (forexample, through computerization). The revenue deficit must be brought tozero within five years.Agricultural Sector ReformsWhile some agricultural reforms have already been carried out, these arehighly inadequate. Primacy must be given to the agriculture sector in all futurereforms since many more jobs can be created in the agricultural sector, broadlydefined, including activities related to rural industrialization and overall ruraldevelopment. Both on-farm and off-farm employment potential must be fullyexploited. This will raise incomes of farmers and rural labor on a sustainablebasis and provide a much-needed boost to demand for industrial products andservices, thus spurring all-around economic growth.There is an urgent need to raise public investment in agriculturesubstantially. Areas needing investment include: irrigation; watersheddevelopment; rural infrastructure; drinking water; housing and sanitation. Thiswill help raise the productivity of Indian agriculture to international levels andhelp in promoting rural (and interlinked urban) prosperity in India.Second-generation reforms must reduce the perennial anti-agricultural biasby permitting free® exports of all primary products. This will provide a majorboost to India's exports consistent with the rules set by the World TradeOrganization. Simultaneously, India must improve its marketing infrastructure.Agricultural reform will unleash high growth rates in agriculture, on whichnearly sixty percent of India's population is still dependent for employment.Agricultural prosperity will help to markedly reduce endemic rural poverty.Industrial RestructuringIndustrial reforms must be geared to explicitly improve the productivityand international competitiveness of Indian industry by focusing on nicheproducts and niche markets. Economic policy in this respect must facilitateECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA282mergers and acquisitions and the winding up of terminally ill enterprises inboth the public and private sectors by restructuring bankruptcy laws. Massiverestructuring is required of Public Sector Units. Most non-performing publicsector units should be quickly sold through a privatization process that alsosafeguards the interests of workers through fair compensation for loss of jobs.Public sector enterprises should be governed by a commercial culture in whichgovernment holdings are no more than 26 percent of equity and are retainedonly to preserve strategic control. It is of the utmost importance that microlevelreforms must supplement macro-level reforms in the future to achievesynergy. The private sector in India needs to become more international in itsoutlook to become more competitive and to increase its overseas presencethrough outward FDI.Labor ReformsA properly formulated labor policy must form the core of secondgenerationreforms. This will require viable alternative social safety nets andeffective retraining and re-employment opportunities. Once satisfactory safetynets are in place, more intensive competition should be injected into the labormarket by allowing 'hire and fire' policies unambiguously linked to theproductivity and profitability of micro-enterprises. The government shouldstart by exempting units in the newly created Special Economic Zones fromthe rigors of labor laws. These measures would be of great help in redressinginefficiency of workers in public enterprises and public services (such as healthcare in rural areas).Foreign Trade and Outward Investment PoliciesNo economic reforms can succeed in India without ensuring adequategrowth of exports of goods and services to ensure longer-term viability of itsbalance of payments. While anti-dumping measures need to be strengthened toprotect Indian industry from unfair import competition, the longer-termreforms must continue to lower import duties to levels comparable to those inleading Southeast Asian countries. Simultaneously, measures should be takenby the government to replace quantitative restrictions (wherever they stillremain in place) through appropriately determined tariffs.The second generation of economic reforms must facilitate the growth ofIndia's own Multi-National Corporations (MNCs). The government mustfurther liberalize outward foreign investment to allow potentially competitiveIndian MNCs to establish production bases abroad and trade internationally.Finally, industry and government must make cooperative efforts to prepareIndian industry to meet the new and ever-emerging challenges posed by theCHARAN WADHVA283new world trade order and the new world investment order being evolvedunder the World Trade Organization.Financial Sector ReformsIndia must heed the lessons of the East Asian economic crisis andrecovery, and attached the utmost urgency the next phase of financial-sectorreforms. The high level of Non-Performing Assets plaguing long-termDevelopment Financing Institutions and commercial banks must bedramatically reduced.To summarize, greater competition in the financial sector with anappropriate exit policy to reduce overstaffing together, along with soundmacro-economic policies, will help to lower the real rate of interest and spurinvestment and efficiency, thereby raising growth rates and benefitingconsumers. Coupled with the current regime of falling interest rates, greatercompetition in the financial sector in general and among the commercial banksin particular will help to increase the rate of investment in the economy.Simultaneously, foreign insurance and pension funds should be allowed tooperate with fewer restrictions to make more resources available to finance themodernizing of India's infrastructure. Further policy and procedural reforms(especially in the power sector) will help to attract substantially higherinvestment in India's infrastructural sectors.Finally, credible policy measures that protect investors, especiallyindividual investors with small savings must be adopted. These measures, ifeffectively implemented, will help to revive growth in India's capital and stockmarkets. It must be remembered at all times that the be-all and end-all of alleconomic activities is the consumer. Future economic reforms must aim todirectly benefit Indian consumers through cost reductions, enhanced quality ofgoods and services, and by expanding customer choice through competition.CONCLUSIONSWithin the constraints of democratic politics and the relatively 'soft' natureof the economic reforms implemented since 1991, the Indian economy hasreaped several welcome rewards from its reforms. These have strengthenedthe conviction that the broad direction of the reforms is right and, in thatsense, made the reform process irreversible. However, India needs to launch a'second generation' of economic reforms, with a more human face, if it is toreap their full potential. Politicians and administrators need to display greaterpragmatism while designing and implementing future economic reforms. TheECONOMIC REFORM IN INDIA284reforms must be based on the long-term vision of transforming India into aglobal economic power in the next twenty to twenty-five years.It will be of the utmost importance that all sections of society are educatedas to the long-term benefits of reform in order to mobilize public support.These reforms, therefore, will have to be drastically redesigned and politically'marketed'. Future economic reforms must be seen and experienced as notonly good economics but also good politics.Two paradigm shifts in the reforms, backed up by the effective fulfillmentof the promises made, will help to garner the support of the Indian people.First, these reforms must aim to raise the productivity of Indian labor andimprove the work culture and, over time, provide significant rewards to thepeople of India by spurring growth, providing a higher level of real wages, andgenerating wider avenues for employment and re-employment. Growth withemployment is the most effective strategy for eliminating poverty andimproving the quality of life of the people.Second, the reforms must aim to directly benefit Indian consumers. Over areasonable time span, the reforms must reduce prices of goods and services(including public goods), improve their quality, and allow much more freedomof choice by maximizing the benefits of healthy competition. This will furtherexpand the size of the market-both domestic and international-and provideincentives to entrepreneurs to raise their investment, output, and employment.A combination of more productive labor and pro-consumer economic reformswill be a win-win, proving to be both good economics and good politics.Visionary political statesmanship will be required for this. It should not beslogan-oriented but more result-oriented since it will likely be perceived andexperienced as 'pro-people'.
Why are there creation stories?
Firstly, it needs to be understood that there are not two creation accounts but two 'parts' to the one account. The reason for this assertion will be explained below.The common ancient practice, as evidenced in other ancient literature, was to write one main account and then to write a second part or section which expanded on the first or some aspect of it. This is precisely what we have in the creation account which spans Genesis 1 and 2.Secondly, it needs to be understood clearly that the Documentary Hypothesis or JEDP Theory from the 19th Century has been repeatedly and thoroughly refuted in terms of the main presuppositions on which it is based. It thus has no basis as a factual theory. In particular, this theory totally ignores the findings of archaeology which refute its false presuppositions. It is archaeology, with its growing evidence of ancient literature which has furnished examples which highlight this ancient literary device.Thirdly, in relation to the two parts of the one account the divisions are these. The first part of the account is generally chronological in that it gives a summary of the total creation over the period of the six days into the seventh day of rest. This account proceeds from Genesis 1:1 to 2:4a.The second part of the one account begins at 2:4a and deals specifically with the creation of man. It is non-chronological, which is why some people see a non-existent contradiction between the two parts. Understanding the different emphasis removes this misunderstanding.Summary:The simple reason there appears to be two creation accounts is that this is an ancient literary usage. This usage takes a general overview and then later takes a particular part and expands upon it. There are thus not two accounts but different parts of the one account.AnswerRe-thinking the single creation theoryFirst, one has to keep in mind that these ancient writings are from a Hebratic people, and only they can make known their spiritual beliefs and practices.In my research on this very subject, I have found information that has changed my understanding of the creation story that I learned from childhood through Sunday School.Christ in John 4:22, is speaking to a Samaritan woman concerning whom they worship, "Ye worship ye know not what: we know what we worship: for salvation is of the Jews."To lean the truth, we need to look to the Jewish teachings, and not the translations by modern man or their interpretations.And this I have done.Numbers are very significate to Jewish faith.Let's look at the numbers 7 and 8.In kabbalistic teachings, the number seven symbolizes perfection -perfection that is achievable via natural means - while eight symbolizes thatwhich is beyond nature and its (inherently limited) perfection.Some examples:a) God created the world and its natural order in seven days.b) Between the holidays of Passover and Shavuot there are seven weeks. During these weeks the Jews work on perfecting their seven emotions (love, fear, compassion, ambition, humility, bonding and receptiveness)-one emotion per week. At the conclusion of these seven weeks they have sufficiently perfected themselves to be worthy of receiving the Torah on Shavuot. A completed person has control over all seven emotions.c) The Holy Temple's menorah, which served to illuminate the natural world with the holy glow of spirituality, had seven branches.e) There are seven colors of the rainbow and seven musical notes. When something has seven parts, it symbolizes that it has reached its state of completion: the seven notes of the diatonic scale make one complete octave, etc.Eight, on the other hand, is symbolic of an entity that is one step above the natural order, higher than nature and its limitations. That's why Chanukah is eight days long-The greatly outnumbered Maccabees' resolve to battle the Greeks wasn't logical or natural. They drew on reservoirs of faith and courage that are not part of normative human nature. They therefore merited a miracle higher than nature - a miracle that lasted eight days - and to commemorate this, the Jews light on Chanukah an eight-branched menorah.It was a command by God that all Jewish baby boys were to be circumcised on the eight day after their birth to consecrate them to god. In Judaism, circumcision is considered a symbol of the covenant between God and the Jewish people. In fact, brisliterally means "covenant." The bris is on the eighth day so that the newborn baby will by necessity live through a complete week which must include a Sabbath. Once the baby has experienced the "holiness" of the Shabbos, he may enter into the covenant of the Jewish people.Now let's go to the scriptues.TWO CREATIONS OF MANCreation 1) THE GENTILES (People of Different Nations)Creation 2) MESSIANNIC LINE (Adam - Noah - David - Christ)DAY 6 "Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind,"(A spoken command by the creator (the Word) and it was done. They were not "formed" by the hands of the creator, it was a command and the earth delivered.)1st. he created - Cattle2nd. he created - The things that creep/crawls upon the earth3rd he created - The beasts of the earth. And "It was so."4th God is taking inventory and God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after his kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind : and God saw that it was good."5th - Let us make man in our image, after our likeness : and let them [plural, as in nations, races] have dominion over ALL living creatures, of those in the sea, in the air and of 'the beasts' and of 'the creeping things.' [God gave dominion over the earth to these human beings that He just created.]Vs 27 - "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them."Vs 28 And now God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish [replenish as in repopulate?! ]Vs 31 And God saw every thing that he had made, and behold, it was VERY good. Not just "good", as was exclaimed in verses 1:10, 12, 18, 21, and 25, but VERY good. He was well satisfied. Chapter 2:1-3 God says, Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and ALL THE HOST OF THEM. (the "hosts" of heaven, the angels and the hosts of the earth, mankind, and creatures, both male and female)Genesis Chapter 2 - The Sabbath2&3 And He rested on the 7thday and He blessed and sanctified it. Now this part of the creation phase is complete. And He says, 4 these are THE GENERATIONS of the heavens and of the earth, in the day, that the LORD God made the earth and heavens,for the Lord God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground. 6 There went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground. 7 And the Lord God formed man from the moistened earth, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul. (Through Adam, a Savior would be born, an "eternal" living soul) Adam was the beginning of a "special" race of people, a "saving" race.Next, pay close attention to the order in which things are created here, starting with the creation of Adam. The steps in which each item was created, is different from the 6th day creation where "man" was created last and animals and creeping things were created first.1st Adam is formed. Genesis 5b - 7.2nd "God planted a garden3rd Now we have a river flowing out of Eden, watering the garden, parting and forming 4 rivers.4th Genesis 2:15 Heavenly Father put Adam in the garden.5th Genesis 2:18 LORD God said, "It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet."6th Genesis 2:19-20 "Out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field , every fowl of the air, {Notice this time the "earth did not bring forth every creature after his kind" as is told on the 6th day of creation, these creations were "formed" by the creator. Another noticeable missing created item of the 6th day creation are the creeping things! They were not created in this creation day and there is a reason that I will explain later.}[These are the "clean" creations, the animals to besacrificed to God in the temple.The Sacrifices - Leviticus 1:2 - cattle, 1:10 - sheep & goats,1:14 - fowl.]7th Genesis 2:21-25 God formed Eve.Adam was created FIRST in this creation where as the creation of "mankind, male and female" created on the 6th day were created last, a different creation, a different people. (The people of Nod, East of Eden, were of the 6th day race of people, one of many nations. Adam was created 2 days later, on the 8th day. The Eight Day creations, as I've written, is symbolic of an entity that is one step above the natural order, higher than nature and its limitations.)The 6th day creations were all "unclean or blemished" heathen and un-Godly humans and animals with blimishes and the 8th day creations are "clean, Godly humans and the animals were without blemish".Genesis 6:19 "And of every living thing of ALL FLESH, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female."Genesis 7 1-9Noah was ordered to take aboard the ark, seven of every clean beast and fowl, the male and his female, and of the beast that are not clean, by two, the male and his female. Noah and his family were righteous and without blemish, and through Noah, Christ would be born.Two creations, one "unclean" created on the 6th day and the other "clean" and special created on the 8th day.1Peter 3:20 "eight souls were "saved" by water." (We see the baptism of Noah's family by water)The righteous/clean/saved people on the ark were:Noah and his wifeHam and his wifeShem and his wifeJapheth and his wife, the 8 saved souls.Genesis 2:5(b) - 25Stong's and NAS Exhaustive Concordances of the Bible :Strong's #120Word - h�·'�·��m, �·��mDefination: man, mankindNAS Exhaustive ConcordanceDefination: man, mankindNASB Translationany man (2x), anyone (4x), anyone's (1x), being* (1x), common sort* (1), human (19), infantry (1), low degree* (1), low* (1), man (363), man's (20), man* (1), mankind (9), men (104), men of low degree* (1), men's (3), men* (4), mortal (1), one (3), people (1), person (5), person* (1), persons (3), population (1), someone (1).Next compare both translations of "adam".GENESIS 1:26The creation of man/humansStrong's # 120 / Transliteration - �·��m / Heb. word - �ָ�ָ��/ Eng. MANGen. 2:5bThe creation of the man named Adam. A being or "entity that is one step above the natural order, higher than nature and its limitations".Strong's # 120 / Transliteration - h�·'�·��m / Heb. word�ְ�ָ�ָ֣� / Eng. MANNotice the number of characters, strokes and dots under both Hebrew words above.The word translated for the Hebrew words "adam and ha-adam" into the English translated word "man", should have been translated, in some instances, differently for a better understanding. To clarify the differance between two separate subjects or better yet, two creations.For example: Genesis1:26 the creation of manHebrew text:1) "way·y�·mer /2) ' �·l�·hîm, /3) na·'�·�eh /4) �·��m /5) b�·ṣal·mê·nū,"English Transliteration1) said /2) God, /3) make /4) 'man kind' /5) our image."I have given you the information, draw your own conclusions.Because before God created the earth and every living thing physically, he made them spiritually; therefore everything has a spirit, even the earth. Hence, two accounts.Put simply, because there were two writers, at least, of Genesis. The 'priestly' writer tells of a God that is personal, and more human-like. He tells of him walking in the Garden with Adam, and having human traits. The second writer, the 'Jahwehist' writer tells of a God that is more aloof and spiritual, and less personal.The evidence for this is overwhelming but easily missable in English translations of Genesis. In the original Hebrew the style of writing between the two writers of the Creation stories is obvious - as obvious as the difference between Tenessee Williams and Shakespeare, or Dickens and Harold Pinter.Are the Creation stories made up then? No, but most Biblical scholars and many Christians who are not Creationists (in the sense that Genesis should be taken word-for-word literally), agree that the stories are far more profound than mere stories of two people in a garden. Many Christians look deeper than the superficial stories of Adam and Eve, and find a real truth of humanity's arrogance and determination to do its own thing rather than obey God's will.The two accounts are sometimes seen by bible Scholars as representing God the Father (the Jahwehist, Spiritual God) and Jesus Christ, as God incarnate (The Priestly God).Finally, if one is to interpret Genesis correctly there are many questions that must be asked, and false assumptions about Genesis dispersed. As one example, we read that God forbade Adam and Eve to eat of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. If, by knowing that eating of that tree would cause death and suffering, why did he put it there in the first place? To catch us out? That does not speak to me of a God of love, but a God out to trap us. Therefore, many scholars now agree that the Tree was part of God's plan - necessary in order that we have free will, and that the rescue package of Jesus Christ was already part of His plan even in the days of Genesis. A second example of incorrect assumptions is that most laymen would agree that the devil tempted Eve to eat of the fruit. However, nowhere in Genesis is the serpent (who actually did the tempting) equated with the devil. The devil, Satam, Beelzebub, Lucifer - however you wish to name him - is never mentioned in Genesis.Therefore, we must put aside preconceptions when looking at this ancient and important text - and that means also putting aside preconceptions about the writer/writers, the style, the reasons for writing and the depth underneath the superficial story. for it is only when we really study God's word that we begin to understand the mind of God and begin to have the ability to do His will.
