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When was Hankuk University of Foreign Studies created?
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies was created in 1954.
When was Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Station created?
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Station was created in 1974.
What is hankook?
Hankuk is korea.
What is Hunan University's motto?
The motto of Hankuk University of Foreign Studies is 'Veritas, Pax, Creatio [진리, 평화, 창조]'.
Jivaka mentioned in the early Buddhist literature was?
Early Buddhist literature was written in a language which evolved as a vehicle for expression among a few competing vaiants which were seemingly different from Sanskrit, a language which had hitherto been identified with the elite and their existing religious discourse. The Buddha wanted to give a linguistic identity to his religious and philosophical discourse and hence the emergence of Pali as a language of the early Buddhist literature.-Prof. R. C. Sharma, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul
Who are Famous University of Florida alumni?
Science and mathematicsMark Adler, American researcher, known for his work in data compression, and creator of zlib and gzipJames Allchin, Developed Microsoft Operating Systems, former executiveJohn D. Anderson, Curator of Aerodynamics at the National Air and Space MuseumJohn Vincent Atanasoff, Inventor of the first automatic electronic digital computerC. D. Atkins, Co-creator of the frozen Orange Juice concentrateRodney J. Bartlett, American chemist, and Guggenheim FellowCharles A. Becker, Food scientist, winner of the Calvert L. Willey AwardKaren Ramey Burns, American forensic anthropologist, and Fulbright ScholarArchie Carr, Eminent American zoologist, famed conservationist, and founder of the Caribbean Conservation CorporationMarjorie Harris Carr, Pioneer in the American Conservation MovementRobert Costanza, American ecological economist and the Gund Professor of Ecological economics and Director of the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics at the University of VermontNils J. Diaz, Former Chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory CommissionJonathan F. Earle, American Engineer, received the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering MentoringPhilip Don Estridge, Led development of the original IBM Personal Computer (PC), and thus is known as "father of the IBM PC"Manuel Fernandez, Entrepreneur, guiding force behind the Gavilan SC, the first laptop computer, Former Chair of UF Board of Trustees, Chairman of Sysco FoodsHarry James Free, Co-creator of GatoradeFred Gage, American researcher of Alzheimer's disease and the spinal cordRobert Gentry, Nuclear physicist and creationist advocateJohn W. Griffin, Archaeologist, researcher, administrator, and authorKelsie Harder, American onomasticianSteven Hebert, American nephrologistJoe Hernandez, Current CEO for the biotech firm Innovative BiosensorsRichard Highton, Famous Zoologist, and current Professor Emeritus in Biology at the University of MarylandShere Hite, Famous sex educator and feministHorton H. Hobbs, Jr., Famous carcinologist, and former Head Curator of the United States National MuseumJames Hollan, American cognitive scientist, and Professor at University of California, San DiegoGeorge Kauffman, Former Professor emeritus for Chemistry, Guggenheim FellowPramod Khargonekar, Current Dean of the University of Florida College of EngineeringBruce C. Kone, Former Dean of the University of Florida College of MedicineJoseph C. Joyce, Current Executive Vice President for the Institute of Food and Agricultural SciencesRobert Love, American author, speaker, and open source software developerLouis G. MacDowell, Co-creator of the frozen Orange Juice concentrateChris Malachowsky, American computer scientist and co-founder of NVIDIAPreston McAfee, Current Vice President for Yahoo! ResearchEdwin H. McConkey, Prominent biologists who study evolution, current Professor Emeritus at the University of ColoradoJerald Milanich, American anthropologist and archaeologistLee Ann Newsom, Famed Anthropologist, and MacArthur FellowNandini Nimbkar, Current President of the Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute in IndiaJerald S. Paul, Former Deputy Administrator for the National Nuclear Security AdministrationPeter Pritchard, Famed ZoologistAnil K. Rajvanshi, Mechanical Engineer, and current Director of the Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute in IndiaMichael Reynolds, Notable AstronomerLesa Roe, Current Director of the NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, VirginiaDouglas A. Rossman, American herpetologistMichael Ryschkewitsch, Current chief engineer for NASADana Shires, Co-creator of GatoradeEduardo Sontag, Notable Argentine mathematicianJeffrey Spieler, Current Director of Research for USAIDLewis Stadler, American geneticistGilbert Stork, Creator of the Stork enamine alkylation, and Professor of Chemistry Emeritus at Columbia UniversityMichael Thomas, American entomologistJames Thompson, Former Director of the NASA Marshall Space Flight CenterNobel Prize laureatesRobert Grubbs, Won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2005 for his work in the field of olefin metathesisMarshall Nirenberg, Won the Nobel Prize for Physiology/Medicine in 1968 for describing the genetic code and how it operates in protein synthesisDr. William FisherAstronautsWilliam Frederick Fisher, NASA Astronaut, and current Medical DoctorDonald L. Mallick, NASA research pilotBill Nelson, NASA Astronaut, current U.S. Senator, and former U.S. RepresentativeRonald A. Parise, NASA AstronautNorman Thagard, NASA Astronaut, and current Tenured Professor of Engineering at Florida State UniversityPresidents of Universities & CollegesByong Man Ahn, Former President of Hankuk University of Foreign Studies in Seoul, KoreaGeorge F. Baughman, Founding President of New College of FloridaP. George Benson, Current President of the College of CharlestonThomas G. Carpenter, Former President of Memphis State University, and University of North FloridaMarshall Criser, Former President of University of Florida and former Chairman of Scripps FloridaHarold B. Crosby, Former President of University of West Florida and Florida International UniversityGay Culverhouse, Former President of Notre Dame College and President of the Tampa Bay BuccaneersSandy D'Alemberte, Former President of Florida State University and the American Bar AssociationJohn Delaney, Current President of the University of North Florida, former mayor of JacksonvilleDonald Eastman, Current President of Eckerd CollegeRay F. Ferrero Jr., Current President of Nova Southeastern UniversityFred Gainous, Former President of Florida A&M UniversityS. Malcolm Gillis, Former President of Rice UniversityMadlyn L. Hanes, Current President of Penn State HarrisburgCarl Hite, President of Cleveland State Community College, TennesseeRobert Lindgren, Current President of Randolph-Macon CollegeCharles N. Millican, Founding President of the University of Central FloridaStephen C. O'Connell, Former President of the University of FloridaEduardo J. Padrón, Current President of Miami Dade CollegePaul G. Pearson, Former President of Miami University of Ohio and former Interim President for Rutgers UniversityWilliam L. Proctor, Former Chancellor of Flagler CollegeMichael Rao, Current President of Central Michigan UniversityW. Reece Smith Jr., Former President of the University of South Florida and the American Bar Association, and Rhodes ScholarJanet Todd, Current President of Lucy Cavendish College at the University of CambridgeE. Jean Walker, Former President of Virginia Highlands Community CollegePoliticians, Military, and LegalAlto L. Adams, Former Justice on the Florida Supreme CourtPhilip Agee, Former operative for the Central Intelligence AgencyJ.D. Alexander, Current member of the Florida Senate, Grandson of Ben Hill Griffin Jr.John R. Alison, The father of Air Force special operationsHarry Lee Anstead, Former Justice on the Florida Supreme CourtWinston E. Arnow, Judge who presided over the Gainesville Eight trialJeffrey Atwater, Current member of the Florida Senate, former CEO of Barnett BankByllye Avery, Notable health care activistCharles R. Black, Jr., Presidential Advisor to Ronald Reagan, and LobbyistBob Butterworth, Former Florida Attorney General, Dean of St. Thomas University College of LawScott Camil, Political activist, known primarily for leading the Gainesville EightSkip Campbell, Former member of the Florida Senate, ran unsuccessfully for Florida Attorney General, Professor at Nova Southeastern UniversityBernadette Castro, Former Commissioner of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation for the state of New YorkLeonard F. Chapman, Jr., Commandant United States Marine Corps 1968-1972Paula Dockery, Current member of the Florida Senate and current Majority WhipStan Dromisky, Former member of the Canadian House of Commons, current professor and a director of the Thunder Bay Art GalleryRaymond Ehrlich, Former justice on the Florida Supreme CourtRichard Ervin, Former Florida Attorney GeneralGeorge Greer, Judge who presided over the Terri Schiavo case, he serves in the Pinellas-Pasco County Circuit Court of FloridaStephen H. Grimes, Former Justice on the Florida Supreme CourtEarl Faircloth, Former Florida Attorney GeneralMallory Horne, Former President of the Florida Senate, former Speaker of the House of Representatives for FloridaBruce Jacob, Former Assistant Attorney General, and prosecuted in Gideon v. WainwrightJoseph Kittinger, Famous pilot for the U.S. Air Force, known for his high-altitude balloon flights & parachute jumpsJeff Kottkamp, Current Florida lieutenant governorJames W. Kynes, Former Florida Attorney General, former Vice President for the Jim Walter CorporationJorge Labarga, Current Justice on the Florida Supreme Court, also refused a new recount during the 2000 U.S. Presidential electionLewis Landes, Former U.S. Army Colonel and prominent AttorneyRow Lewis, Grenadian activistEvelyn J. Lynn, Current member of the Florida SenateParker Lee McDonald, Former Justice of the Florida Supreme CourtVirginia Montes, Latina civil rights activist and feministBen F. Overton, Former Justice on the Florida Supreme CourtAndrew Owens, Former Gator basketball player and current JudgeRobert C. Pittman, Awarded the Distinguished Flying CrossNan Rich, Current member of the Florida SenateAlan G. Rogers, Civil rights activist, and US Army Major who died in Operation Iraqi FreedomMarco Rubio, Current Speaker of the House of Representatives for FloridaHarold Sebring, Judge at the Nuremberg Trials, former Florida Supreme Court judgeT. Terrell Sessums, Former Speaker of the House of Representatives for Florida, former Chairman of the Florida Board of RegentsWilliam A. Shands, Former member of the Florida Senate and namesake for the Shands HospitalRobert Shevin, Former Florida Attorney General, current Judge for Florida's Third District Court of AppealBruce Smathers, Former Florida Secretary of StateTerry Smiljanich, Counsel to the U.S. Senate during the Congressional hearing on the Iran-Contra AffairRod Smith, Former member of the Florida Senate, successfully prosecuted Danny Rolling, ran unsuccessfully for Governor of FloridaSusan Stanton, Former city manager of Largo, Florida, and transsexual activistEvelyn L. Stratton Current Justice for the Ohio Supreme CourtMac Stipanovich, Republican Lobbyist, who had a large role in the 2000 Florida RecountPaul Tibbets, Pilot of the Enola GayW. Fred Turner, Successful in the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Gideon v. WainwrightMarc Warren, Currently an administrator for the Federal Aviation AdministrationCharles T. Wells, Former justice on the Florida Supreme CourtJim Williams, Former Deputy Secretary of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Former Florida lieutenant governorUnited States AmbassadorsFrank Almaguer, U.S. Ambassador to HondurasLucius D. Battle, U.S. Ambassador to Egypt, former President of the Middle Eastern InstituteCarey Cavanaugh, U.S. Ambassador and Director of Patterson School of DiplomacyStanley Tuemler Escudero, U.S. Ambassador to Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and AzerbaijanDennis K. Hays, U.S. Ambassador to SurinameBarbara J. Stephenson, U.S. Ambassador to PanamaDonald L. Tucker, U.S. Ambassador to the Dominican Republic, former Speaker of the Florida House of RepresentativesUnited States SenatorsCharles O. Andrews, Former U.S. SenatorLawton Chiles, Former U.S. Senator and Florida governorJohn Porter East, Former U.S. SenatorBob Graham, Former U.S. Senator, Florida governor, and Presidential CandidateWilliam Luther Hill, Former U.S. SenatorSpessard Holland, Former U.S. Senator, Founder of Holland & Knight, and Former Florida governorConnie Mack III, Former U.S. Senator and U.S. RepresentativeBill Nelson, Current U.S. Senator, and former U.S. RepresentativeGeorge A. Smathers, Former U.S. Senator, Presidential Candidate, and benefactor for the George A. Smathers Libraries at the University of FloridaFederal JudgesSidney M. Aronovitz, United States District JudgeC. Clyde Atkins, United States District JudgeWilliam Julius Barker, United States District JudgeRosemary Barkett, United States Circuit Judge for the Eleventh CircuitSusan H. Black, United States Circuit Judge for the Eleventh CircuitWilliam J. Castagna, United States District JudgeAnne C. Conway, United States District JudgeEdward B. Davis, United States District JudgeWilliam Dimitrouleas, United States District JudgeJoe Oscar Eaton, United States District JudgePatricia C. Fawsett, United States District JudgePeter T. Fay, United States Circuit Judge for the Eleventh CircuitAlan Stephen Gold, United States District JudgeJose A. Gonzalez, Jr., United States District JudgeWilliam Terrell Hodges, United States District JudgeMarcia Morales Howard, United States District JudgePaul Huck, United States District JudgeElizabeth Jenkins, United States Magistrate JudgeJames W. Kehoe, United States District JudgeJames Lawrence King, United States District JudgeBen Krentzman, United States District JudgeRichard A. Lazzara, United States District JudgeWilliam McRae, United States District JudgeWilliam O. Mehrtens, United States District JudgeHowell W. Melton, United States District JudgeSteven D. Merryday, United States District JudgeStephan P. Mickle, United States District JudgeDonald M. Middlebrooks, United States District JudgeJames S. Moody, Jr., United States District JudgeJon B. Morgan, United States Circuit Judge for the Ninth CircuitThomas Morris, United States Magistrate JudgeRalph Wilson Nimmons, Jr., United States District JudgeJames Carriger Paine, United States District JudgeMaurice M. Paul, United States District JudgeS. Jay Plager, United States Circuit Judge for the Federal CircuitGregory A. Presnell, United States District JudgeJohn M. Bryan Simpson, United States Circuit Judge for the Fifth CircuitJohn Richard Smoak, Jr., United States District JudgeEugene P. Spellman, United States District JudgeUrsula Mancusi Ungaro-Benages, United States District JudgeJames Whittemore, United States District JudgeGeorge C. Young, United States District JudgeUnited States RepresentativesCharles Edward Bennett, Former U.S. RepresentativeGus Bilirakis, Current U.S. RepresentativeMichael Bilirakis, Former U.S. RepresentativeCorrine Brown, Current U.S. RepresentativeWilliam V. Chappell, Jr., Former U.S. RepresentativeAnder Crenshaw, Current U.S. RepresentativeJim Davis, Former U.S. Representative, ran unsuccessfully for Governor of FloridaDon Fuqua, Former U.S. RepresentativeSam Gibbons, Former U.S. RepresentativeJames W. Grant, Former U.S. RepresentativeRobert A. Green, Former U.S. RepresentativeBill Gunter, Former U.S. RepresentativeAlbert S. Herlong, Jr., Former U.S. RepresentativeMarjorie Holt, Former U.S. RepresentativeWilliam C. Lantaff, Former U.S. RepresentativeTom Lewis, Former U.S. RepresentativeCraig T. James, Former U.S. RepresentativeHarry Johnston, Former U.S. RepresentativeBuddy MacKay, Former U.S. RepresentativeConnie Mack III, Former U.S. Representative and U.S. SenatorConnie Mack IV, Current U.S. RepresentativeBetsy Markey, Current U.S. RepresentativeDonald Ray Matthews, Former U.S. RepresentativeBill McCollum, Former U.S. Representative and Current Florida Attorney GeneralChester B. McMullen, Former U.S. RepresentativeDaniel Mica, Former U.S. RepresentativeJohn Mica, Current U.S. RepresentativeDan Miller, Former U.S. RepresentativeJeff Miller, Current U.S. RepresentativeBill Nelson, Former U.S. Representative and Current U.S. SenatorJ. Hardin Peterson, Former U.S. RepresentativeAdam Putnam, Current U.S. RepresentativePaul G. Rogers, Former U.S. RepresentativeTom Rooney, Current U.S. RepresentativeJoe Scarborough, Former U.S. Representative and Current MSNBC talk show hostDebbie Wasserman Schultz, Current U.S. RepresentativeRobert L. F. Sikes, Former U.S. RepresentativeKaren Thurman, Former U.S. RepresentativeRobert Wexler, Current U.S. RepresentativeGovernorsReubin O'Donovan Askew, Florida governorC. Farris Bryant, Florida governorLawton Chiles, Florida governor and U.S. SenatorBob Graham, Florida governor and U.S. Senator & Presidential CandidateSpessard Holland, Florida governor and U.S. Senator, and Founder of Holland & KnightBuddy MacKay, Florida governor and Florida lieutenant governorDaniel T. McCarty, Florida governorWayne Mixson, Florida governorBeverly Perdue, North Carolina governor, and North Carolina lieutenant governorFuller Warren, Florida governorMayorsEd Austin, Former Mayor of Jacksonville, FloridaJohn Delaney, Former Mayor of Jacksonville, FloridaJohn Dicks, Former Mayor of Plant City, FloridaBuddy Dyer, Current Mayor of Orlando, FloridaRandy Ewers, Current Mayor of Ocala, FloridaRobert L. Floyd, Former Mayor of Miami, FloridaPegeen Hanrahan, Current Mayor of Gainesville, FloridaJohn Land, Currently the longest serving Mayor in the history of the State of FloridaJulian Barnes Lane, Former Mayor of Tampa, FloridaWilliam F. Poe, Former Mayor of Tampa, FloridaHans Tanzler, Former Mayor of Jacksonville, FloridaGenerals & AdmiralsJohn R. Alison, Retired Major General of the U.S. Air Force, and father of Air Force Special OperationsJohn M. Allen, Active Brigadier General of the U.S. Air ForceGeorge F. Baughman, Retired Rear Admiral of the U.S. Navy, and founding President of New College of FloridaAlbert H. Blanding, Retired Lieutenant General of the U.S. ArmyRichard E. Cellon, Active Rear Admiral of the U.S. NavyLeonard F. Chapman, Jr., Retired General of the United States Marine Corps and Commandant of the Marine CorpsRonald G. Crowder, Active Major General for the Army National GuardCharles W. Dorman, Retired Brigadier General, & Chief Judge for the U.S. Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal AppealsJohn Douglas, Retired Brigadier General of the United States Air ForceMark T. Emerson, Active Rear Admiral of the U.S. Navy, current Commander of the Naval Strike and Air Warfare CenterJohn Fryer, Retired Major General of the U.S. Air ForceJoseph C. Joyce, Retired Brigadier General of the U.S. Army, and current Vice President of IFASRichard B. Landolt, Active Rear Admiral of the U.S. NavyJoseph Martin, Active Brigadier General of the U.S. Air ForceLeon E. Salomon, Retired General of the U.S. Army, current Vice President for RubbermaidLeland C. Shepard, Retired Brigadier General of the United States Air ForcePaul Sullivan, Active Major General of the U.S. Air ForceAlan S. Thompson, Active Rear Admiral of the U.S. NavyPaul Tibbets, Retired Brigadier General of the U.S. Air Force, pilot of the Enola GayBusiness executives, policy leaders, and othersWilliam J. Alcorn, Current Senior Vice President for J. C. PenneyRaymond W. Alden III, Current Provost and Executive Vice President of Northern Illinois UniversityAlan Paul Anderson, Current Commissioner of the Federal Maritime CommissionLarry Arrington, Current Senior Vice President of the Institute of Food and Agricultural SciencesDuBose Ausley, Former Chairman of the Florida Board of RegentsDebra D. Austin, Former Chancellor of the State University System of FloridaHolly Benson, Current Secretary of the Florida Department of Business and Professional RegulationAlan Stephenson Boyd, Former Secretary of the United States Department of TransportationRobert B. Bradley, Current Vice President at Florida State UniversityCarol Browner, Current Climate Czar for the Obama Administration, former Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection AgencyDana Bullen, Former director of the Press Freedom Committee, former foreign editor of The Washington StarLeighton Campbell, Prominent investment advisor, and author of "The Other Way"Kiki Carter, Former environmental activist, organizer, songwriter, and columnistRobert B. Carter, Current CIO of the FedEx CorporationAlan Cohen, Current owner of the Florida Panthers hockey teamJohn J. Considine, Current Senior Minister for the Unity Church, former member of the Florida House of RepresentativesMarshall Criser, Former Chairman of Scripps Florida, and former President of the University of FloridaJ. Broward Culpepper, First Chancellor of the State University System of Florida, and former Dean at Florida State UniversityJ.J. Daniel, Former Publisher of the Florida Times-Union and Jacksonville JournalJohn Dillin, Former editor for the Christian Science MonitorPaul Rand Dixon, Former Chairman and Commissioner of the Federal Trade CommissionNgo Dong, Founder of Cuong NhuWilliam A. Emerson, Former Senior Vice President for Merrill LynchMark Erstling, Senior Vice President and COO for the Association of Public Television StationsMark S. Fowler, Former Federal Communications CommissionerPedro José Greer, Current Assistant Dean for the Florida International University College of MedicineBill Gurley, General Partner at Benchmark CapitalMason Hawkins, Founder of Southeastern Asset ManagementW. Michael Heekin, Founding COO of WebMD, and Dean at the Florida State University College of LawKenneth T. Henson, Current Dean of Education at The CitadelLawrence J. Hoffman, Founder of Greenberg TraurigWillis N. Holcombe, Current Chancellor of the Community College System of FloridaVan Ellis Huff, Inventor of the Jalousie WindowMaryfran Johnson, Former Editor-in-Chief of Computerworld, current VP & Editorial Director, CIO Decisions Media GroupFrank Karel III, Former Vice President of the Rockefeller FoundationMark E. Kaplan, Former Secretary of the Florida Department of TransportationJack Katz, Founder of the Panama Jack CompanyDouglas Leigh, American advertising executive, and pioneer in signage and outdoor advertising, and created New York City's Times SquareChris Linn, Current Vice President for MTVRobert Love, Developer that uses open source, known for his contributions to the Linux kernelShannon McAleavey, Current Vice President for Walt Disney WorldBill McBride, Successful Florida businessman & lawyer, ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Florida in 2002Marshall McDonald, Former Chairman of Florida Power and LightKip McKean, Founder of the International Churches of ChristJames E. McLean, Current Dean of Education at the University of AlabamaJennifer McMillin, Current Executive Vice President for Golin Harris InternationalHowell W. Melton Jr., Current Managing Partner for Holland & KnightRichard Monroe, Current Vice President for Darden Restaurants Inc.Dianna Fuller Morgan, Former Senior Vice President of Walt Disney World, currently Chairwoman of the Board of Trustees for UFMortimer Neufville, Former Executive Vice-President for the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant CollegesRosemarie Rolando Nye, Current Vice President for Avaya IncWilford B. Poe, Current Vice President for the Space Systems GroupDavid Ropes, Former Vice President of ReebokStephen M. Ross, Current owner of the Miami Dolphins and billionaireJoan D. Ruffier, Former Chairman of the Florida Board of RegentsFrank Shorter, Former Chairman of the United States Anti-Doping Agency, and Olympic Gold MedalistEric J. Smith, Current Education Commissioner of FloridaHal Steinbrenner, Current Executive Vice President and General Partner for the New York YankeesHaywood Sullivan, Former owner of the Boston Red SoxDonald Thomas, Current COO of American Cancer SocietyMelinda Lou Thomas, Namesake of Wendy's Restaurants and daughter of Wendy's founder Dave ThomasJames R. Thompson, Jr., Former Director of the NASA Marshall Space Flight CenterJon L. Thompson, Former Vice President of the Exxon Mobil CorporationKaren Thurman, Current Chairman for the Florida Democratic Party, and Former U.S. RepresentativeW. Brad Todd, Former Chair of the Dept. of Advertising's Professional Advisory, principal for the Richards GroupJulie K. Underwood, Current dean of the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of EducationCraig Waters, Spokesman for the Florida Supreme Court during the 2000 presidential election controversyJames L. Wattenbarger, Creator of the Florida Community Colleges SystemMiles Wilkin, Current COO of Clear Channel EntertainmentHarry Wismer, Founding owner of the New York Titans, which ultimately became the New York JetsPresidents & Chief Executive OfficersCarlos Alfonso, Current CEO of Alliant Partners, CEO Alfonso Architects, currently serving on the UF Board of TrusteesCesar L. Alvarez, Current CEO of Greenberg TraurigMartha Barnett, Former President of American Bar AssociationRichard C. Barlett, Former President of Mary Kay Inc.Barry Berrish, Former President of the James B. Beam Distilling CompanyAlan Stephenson Boyd, Former President of Amtrak, Airbus, and Illinois Central RailroadMalcolm Bricklin, Former CEO of Subaru of America & creator of the Bricklin SV-1J. Thomas Cardwell, Current CEO of Akerman SenterfittWilliam A. Chen, Current President of the Asia America Multitechnology AssociationThomas E. Clarke, Former President of Nike, Inc.Lawrence W. Clarkson, Former President of Boeing EnterprisesGay Culverhouse, Former President of the Tampa Bay BuccaneersJ. Michael Cook, Former CEO of Deloitte & ToucheSandy D'Alemberte, Former President the American Bar Association, and Florida State UniversityJohn Dasburg, Former CEO of Northwest Airlines and Former Chairman of the Burger King CorporationChris A. Davis, Former Chairman and CEO of McLeodUSA, and Current General Partner of Forstmann Little & CompanyDeborah Dugan, Current President of Disney Publishing Worldwide, Former Vice President of Angel RecordsKurt Feazel, Current President of Pecten Trading Company, Former USAF Pilot, Former Gator Basketball playerManuel Fernandez, Former CEO of Gartner, and Former Chairman of the UF Board of Trustees, Current Chairman of Sysco FoodsAlvin Flanagan, Former President & Chairman of Gannett Broadcasting and Former Vice Chairman of United TelevisionBill France, Jr., Former President of NASCARC. Del Galloway, Current CEO of Public Relations Society of AmericaMércio Pereira Gomes, Former President of the National Foundation for Indigenous Peoples (FUNAI)Harbert Gregory, Founder of the Gregory-Salisbury & Company, Former Chairman and CEO of Electrical Equipment, Inc.Ben Hill Griffin III, Former Chairman and CEO of Alico Inc.Glenda K. Griffin, Current President & CEO of Corporate Growth Consultants Inc.Kelsie B. Harder, Former President of the American Name Society and ProfessorDebra Harvey, Current President of Ron Jon Inc.Wayne T. Hockmeyer Founder, President, and CEO of MedImmuneSusan Ivey, Current Chairman and CEO of Reynolds AmericanJohn Janick, Current Founder and CEO of Fueled by Ramen RecordsWilliam King, Former President of the National Academy of DesignJosh Linkner, Founder and CEO of ePrizeAlan Levine, Current CEO of the Broward Hospital District, former Secretary of Florida Agency for Healthcare AdministrationStephen Knopik, Current CEO of Bealls Inc.Hyung Khu Lim, Current CEO of Samsung Advanced Institute of TechnologyJames Mandell, Current President and CEO of Children's Hospital BostonBetsy Markey, Current CEO of Syscom Services, currently a US RepresentativeJ. Robert McClure III, Current President and CEO of the James Madison InstituteDaniel Mica, Current President and CEO of the Credit Union National Association and former U.S. CongressmanDavid Miller, Former President of J. C. PenneyJ. Keith Moyer, Current President for Minneapolis Star TribuneDavid Nelms, Current CEO of Discover FinancialDonna Pastore, Current President of the National Association for Gils & Women in sportsHerb Peyton, Founder and President of the Gate Petroleum CompanyHoward Roffman, Current President of Lucas LicensingAl Rosen, Former President of the Houston Astros, and the New York YankeesSachio Semmoto, Current CEO for eAccess and eMobileEleanor Smeal,Former President of National Organization for WomenChesterfield Smith, Former President of the American Bar Association, investigated the Watergate ScandalW. Reece Smith Jr., Former President of the American Bar Association, the USF, and Rhodes ScholarDianne Snedaker, Current President of Ketchum AdvertisingSung Won Sohn, Current CEO of Hanmi Financial Corp, former Vice President of Wells FargoStephen Strang, Current CEO of Relevant MagazineDavid M. Thomas, Former CEO of IMS HealthCarlos O. Torano, Current President of Toraño Cigars and Central America TobaccoHerb Yalof, Former President of Macy'sMark E. Yegge, Former CEO and Chairman of NexTrade HoldingsJose Zaglul, Current President of EARTH University in Costa RicaJerry Zucker, Former CEO of the Polymer Group, Hudson's Bay Company, and made Forbes magazine's list of billionairesAthletic DirectorsWilliam Carr, Former Athletic Director for the University of Houston, and University of FloridaPaul Dee, Former Athletic Director for the University of MiamiDoug Dickey, Former Athletic Director for the University of TennesseeBill Proctor, Former Athletic Director for Florida State UniversityKeith R. Tribble, Current Athletic Director for the University of Central FloridaUniversity BenefactorsBen Hill Griffin, Jr., Florida citrus farmer, University benefactor for the Ben Hill Griffin Stadium at the University of FloridaWilliam R. Hough, Prominent investment banker, namesake of the "Hough Graduate School of Business" at the University of FloridaFred Levin, Prominent attorney, namesake of the Levin College of Law at the University of FloridaAlfred A. McKethan, Former Chairman of the SunTrust Bank, namesake of the Alfred A. McKethan StadiumGeorge Smathers, Benefactor for The George A. Smathers Libraries at the University of FloridaAl Warrington, Former CEO of Sanfill, namesake of the Warrington College of Business at the University of FloridaArt, literature, humanities, and entertainmentDon Addis, Columnist and comic strip artistChris Adrian, Prominent American author who wrote God's GriefAlberto Alfonso, Notable Architect, Designer of only Dale Chihuly MuseumLauren Anderson, American modelAlex Anmahian, Notable architect and currently a faculty member at Harvard UniversityChris Bachelder, American writer, e-book pioneerTodd Barry, Stand-up comedianJoseph Beckham, Winner of the McGhehey award, and currently a Professor at Florida State UniversityWayne Besen, Former spokesman for the Human Rights Campaign, and gay rights advocateMike Bianchi, Columnist for the Orlando SentinelEdward L. Bowen, Notable horse racing historianWendy Brenner, Author and Professor; Phone Calls From the Dead , Large Animals in Everyday Life: StoriesWilliam C. Bradford, Apache writer, professor, and legal scholarRita Mae Brown, Author and famous activistAlan Burnett, Television producer and writerAl Burt, Miami Herald and Atlanta JournalwriterKevin Canty, American author; Into the Great Wide Open, Nine Below Zero, and Winslow in LoveKelly Carrington, American modelJuliana Catlin, Interior Design authorityJean Chance, Chairman of the Hearst Awards Committee for 25 years, Professor of Journalism at UFPeter Christopher, American Author; Campfires of the DeadHarry Crews, American novelist, short story writer, and essayistMichael Connelly, Best-selling author and Alumnus of DistinctionJonathan Demme, Director, Academy Award for directing The Silence of the LambsKaren DeYoung, Pulitzer Prize recipient, Washington Postassociate editorKate DiCamillo, Award-winning children's novelist and screenwriterMicki Dickoff, Multiple Emmy Award winning Director & ProducerBrian Doherty, Senior Editor at Reason Magazine, authorGregg Doyel, Writer for CBS SportsRich Fields, Announcer of The Price Is Right, meteorologist, radio personality, voice-over actorDexter Filkins, Nominated for the Pulitzer Prize for his journalismJesse Hill Ford, Writer and screenwriterMichael France, Prominent screenwriter for Golden Eye, Hulk, and PunisherRobert Fulton, Award winning writer and naturalistMichael Gannon, military historian and Catholic priestMerrill Gerber, authorNorman Gilliland, author, WERN hostMaryAnne Golon, picture editor for Time magazinePhilip Graham, former Washington Post publisherRichard Grayson, Famous writer and political activistEdwin Granberry, Long-time writer of the comic strip Buz SawyerRebecca Greer, Woman's Day editorJames Grippando, Novelist and lawyerIsrael Gutierrez, Miami Herald columnist, former Palm Beach Post columnistRobert J. Haiman, St. Petersburg Times executive editor, Poynter Institute presidentCarl Hiaasen, novelist, Miami Herald columnist, also won the Newbery HonorShere Hite, Author of the Hite Report, she is also a sex educator & feministNoy Holland, Author of What Begins With Bird and Spectacle of the BodyJudith Ivory, Best-selling American author of historical romance novelsEberhard Jäckel, German historianBharat Jhunjhunwala, Indian columnist and consultantClint Johnson, American historian and authorEd Johnson, Senior Editor for the New York TimesMindi Keirnan, Current Vice President of Operations for Knight-RidderStetson Kennedy, Award-winning author and human rights activistTom Kennedy, Current managing editor for the Washington Post and Newsweek InteractiveJeff Kiel, Former Publisher for the San Jose Mercury NewsEliot Kleinberg, Author and writer for the Palm Beach PostDennis Kneale, Managing editor of Forbes MagazineMichael Koretzky, Journalist, editor, and writerLarry Lancit, Received an Emmy Award for Reading RainbowVictoria Lancelotta, Current editor of the Georgetown Review, and American AuthorDavid Lawrence Jr., Former publisher of the Miami Herald, and former editor of the Detroit Free PressCharlotte Laws, American author, talk show host, and community activistKen Leebow, Author, speaker and TV personality - 300 Incredible Things to Do on the Internet book seriesMoss Mabry, Famed Costume designer, and nominated for four Academy AwardsRon Magill, Renown photographer and wildlife expertThomas E. 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What are some of the sociocultural differences between the united states and South Korea?
As mentioned in the introduction, a management system is a function of its culture. This means that the culture of a nation influences and systematizes the management system of that nation. Understanding Korean culture, therefore, is a prerequisite to understanding the Korean management system. Figure 1.1 (p. 10 ) shows the basic conceptual framework of the Korean management system in terms of the Korean culture. Korea, like Japan and the other countries surrounding China, has been under the influence of the Chinese culture for more than a thousand years. The Chinese culture, therefore, has dominated the Korean society and their everyday lives through political, legal, and social systems in addition to literature, religion, and ethics. Specifically, Chinese culture in general and the religions of Buddhism, Confucianism, Shamanism, and Taoism in particular have played an important role in Korea. Chinese language and literature are very important in that Chinese characters were used exclusively in Korea until the middle of the fifteenth century, and they are still used even after "hangul," the Korean alphabet, was introduced and used extensively. All aspects of the Chinese culture spread into Korea through Chinese books, traditions, customs, and the value system. One out of four South Koreans is a Christian. The largest church in the world, with a congregation numbering at least half a million, is located in Seoul, and many influential leaders and managers both in business and nonbusiness organizations are dedicated Christians. Nevertheless, we exclude Christianity from the following discussion, because the Christian Church has only one hundred years of history in South Korea, except for the Catholic Church, and it may not yet have a profound impact on the formation of characteristics of the Korean people. Actually, Korean Christians are sometimes also believers of Buddhism, -9- Figure 1.1Framework of the Korean Management System Confucianism, Shamanism, and Taoism in the sense that these four religions and teachings are integral parts of the Korean culture. We do not discuss Islam because there are only a few believers. Although Buddhism and Confucianism have been generally accepted as religions in Korea and have become an integral part of the lives of the Koreans, there is a major difference between them: Buddhism is understood and practiced as a pure religion, and it recognizes heaven, hell, and transmigration. It teaches that anyone can enjoy the life of heaven if he or she has a virtuous and honest life in this world. Heaven is the reward for what anyone has done on earth. Buddhism, therefore, represents honest and virtuous living to Koreans. Confucianism, as originally observed in China, is understood more as a moral philosophy with moral teachings than as a religion. It is involved more in the contemporary world, rather than emphasizing the afterlife. Having a meaningful, moral, and virtuous life in this world is an end itself; it does not serve as a precondition to the life after death. Confucianism, therefore, is not seriously concerned with the supernatural world, even though it recognizes the supernatural as an unknown world. Koreans believe that they must fulfill an additional obligation of filial piety to their ancestors. Shamanism has been integrated into the lives of the Koreans through ancestor worship. Koreans, as living offspring, accept blessings in return from the spirits of their ancestors. It is really a quid pro quo. Shamanism recognizes the existence of various gods everywhere who possess the power to bless people who in turn seek the -10- gods' blessing by their devoted prayers for their family members only. During the college entrance examination period, for example, mothers of college applicants fervently pray in Buddhist temples and Christian churches that the colleges will accept their children. This practice can be traced originally to Shamanism tradition, although the practitioners may be Buddhists, Christians, Confucians, or Taoists.The practice of Shamanism in Korea shows the importance of the family system, which was emphasized and integrated fully into the teachings of Confucianism. Koreans are one of the most family-oriented people in the world. Maintaining family tradition and enhancing family prestige are the most important obligations to each family member. Although Korean Christians formally discontinue this process of Shamanism ritual, they still maintain informally the tradition of ancestor worship.Through Chinese Taoism, Koreans conceived of the universe as a great hierarchical whole composed of parts, spaces, and times that correspond to one another. This whole, however, is not static. All entities, including human beings, are subject to changes and transformations ( Eliade 1987). Believers in Taoism emphasize a distaste for worldly affairs and a yearning for life in harmony with nature.We can see the uniqueness of Taoism when we compare Taoism with Confucianism. Taoism stresses avoiding conventional social obligations and leading a simple, spontaneous, and meditative life close to nature. By contrast, Confucianism emphasizes a well-disciplined society and stresses ceremony, duty, and public service. The Koreans have lived by these two different ideals. On the one hand, the Koreans try to succeed in the society following the tradition of Confucianism. On the other hand, Koreans downgrade the significance of worldly success and develop a fatalistic view of the world.Nobody understands the Korean management system clearly without understanding the importance of the family system. Koreans work for their business mainly to preserve their family tradition and to enhance their family prestige through successful businesses. They also work for their business by becoming recognized managers and leaders. Through the ancestor-worship ritual, the living offspring proudly report to their ancestors of their success and thank the spirits for their blessings.As was mentioned above, the teachings and the value system of Confucianism have prevailed in the minds of Koreans. This means that Confucianism has been accepted as a set of moral teachings and ethical values, but not as a religion. Based on Confucianism, the Korean society has the following characteristics: Orderly SocietyUnderstanding and maintaining your position in society-11- Free Society No religious caste system No food restrictions except for health reasons Capability and determination determine your ultimate rankFamily-Oriented Society Filial piety to your parents Loyalty to superiors Paternalistic societyGroup-Oriented Society Individualism in a group setting "Hwa" (harmony) among membersEducation-Oriented Society Career success = f (level of education) mentality Respect for scholarsIn any nation, Confucianism emphasizes a stable society based on loyalty to the state and superiors and filial piety to living parents and even to deceased ancestors through ancestor worship. It also stresses good relations among the members of the society by maintaining adequate hierarchical and lateral relationships. There is a strict hierarchical order to obey in that subordinates must respect and obey their superiors. This has an implication to the Korean management system that we will call the "Principle of Strict Hierarchical Order." On the other hand, superiors must protect the well-being and interests of their subordinates. This principle has a significant impact on the Korean management system, and we will call it the "Principle of Reciprocity." In summary, according to Confucianism, the ethical standards of a society are mutual trust and respect. Traditionally, a stable society functions within the framework of a hierarchical social class system. The four classes of Confucian society were expressed by four Chinese characters. While Koreans pronounce these characters as "sa," "nong," "kong," and "sang," the Japanese pronounce them as "si," "no," "ko," and "sho." The top class of "sa" meant the literate class in Korea, but it also referred to the warrior class in Japan. The second highest class was the farmers; third, the manufacturers. The merchants were relegated to the bottom class because Korean people, in particular, understood that the merchant class exploited people by unjustifiable profit-taking. It should be noted, however, that the divisions among these social classes were never as rigid and exclusive as those in the caste system in India -- there was upward mobility in Korea. Unless someone belonged to the underclass, such as a serf or a man of very humble birth, he could rise to any level depending on talent, capacity, and family status. Yet the top class of "sa" enjoyed the most opportunities in Korea. This has -12- an implication to Korean management that we will call the "Principle of Open Society." In Confucian society, the importance of education cannot be overly emphasized, even today. In Korea, educated men or scholars have been highly respected. However, many Koreans could enjoy the privileges and status of the highest class of "sa" by passing the rigorous civil service examination, "kwageo," to become civil servants. In order to pass the examination, candidates prepared themselves for Confucian literature and politics. This implies that education was critically important to many Koreans since it determined success or failure in their career paths. The critical importance of education has an implication to the Korean management system that we will call the "Principle of Education Priority." Koreans place greater importance on filial piety to parents than on piety to superiors, but the Japanese give higher priority to the reverse order ( Hirschmeier and Yui 1981). Although the Korean society has emphasized loyalty to superiors and to the state, filial piety has been the most important form of social behavior. This means that the family system or family prestige has been the primary objective in Korea. In no other society do we find such a strict regulation to maintain the purity of the family system as in Korea. For example, with few exceptions, no one can marry a person who happens to have the same family name, and every household keeps its own genealogical table to identify the roots of its family. The Korean family system is also unique in that it is defined in a very narrow and strict sense. That is, the system demands a more bloodoriented family than in other societies. The practice of adopting a son has never been used extensively in Korea. Each man must have his own son(s) by any means. If a man fails to have his own son, his last resort is to adopt a son from one of his brothers. Any married woman who cannot conceive a child is considered the most profound sinner and encounters much contempt in society. On February 12, 1988, NBC's Today Show reported about an adoption of children from South Korea. Two Korean brothers were sent to an orphanage because their step-father never accepted them as his children since they were not related by blood to him. Babies of unwed mothers have never been warmly accepted in Korean society and have ended up in orphanages where they might be adopted by American parents. The strangely unique patrimonial heritage of the North Korean Communist system can be understood in this context. President Kim Il Sung is in the process of transferring his power structure to his son, Kim Jong Il. This case represents a complete departure from the typical Communist pattern as an application of the traditional Korean family system. -13- This practice still prevails in the Korean management system. Many Korean corporations are managed by members of the founder's families even after they have expanded into giant businesses. We will call this practice the "Principle of the Blood-oriented Family System." Agriculture was accepted as the basic industry in Korea, and the status of farmers was recognized accordingly, although farmers were exploited by members of the top class. On the other hand, the status of manufacturers and artisans was very low in a society where agriculture was the dominant industry, and thus the manufacturing industry remained at the stage of pre-Industrial Revolution until the early twentieth century. Merchants belonged to the lowest class in Korea. Their functions as transaction facilitators in society were not properly recognized. Instead, they were regarded as men of exploitation and profits. This bad connotation prompted an implication to the Korean management system which we will call the "Principle of Ignoring Commerce." This principle has had a negative impact on the Korean management system, but it has been modified extensively over the past thirty years. You may wonder why Koreans failed to modernize their country as Japan did in 1868 through the Meiji Restoration if Koreans shared a common cultural heritage for so many years with the Japanese. This issue is beyond the scope of this book to discuss in detail, but identification of some of the key reasons is very important in order to understand the unique features of the Korean management system. The main reasons lie in the unique lifestyle that Koreans had practiced. Their lifestyle stems from the unique personalities of Koreans, geopolitical impact, and sociocultural system. Since the Korean peninsula was surrounded by the major powers of China, Japan, and Russia, Koreans abandoned the policy of relying on military power to protect their independence. Instead, Korea was under the umbrella of Chinese protection. Militarism thus never gained any popularity in Korea, and Korean military men were never respected. There was no need to develop any huge logistic system for military operations that needed the help of the merchant class, who in other countries, flourished by providing supplies for military logistics. No serious connection between the military and merchants ever evolved in Korea; therefore, the merchant class had no opportunity to grow under such a nonmilitary and agrarian society. There is another reason: Since no priority was given to militarism in Korea, there was no incentive to develop modern weapon systems. Furthermore, there was no interaction between Koreans and Westerners until the nineteenth century. Japan followed a different course. Since militarism was important in Japan, the warriors, called the samurai class, were genuinely interested in strengthening their military positions. The two most important require- -14- ments to meet this need were to develop a well-organized logistic system and to acquire the most advanced weapons. The former need had contributed to the development of the merchant class and the interaction between these two polarized classes. The samurai class depended on merchants for the effective management of their logistic system for wars, and the merchants depended on the samurai class for their safety and profits. From the early days, there was a close relationship between samurai and merchant classes. Thus commerce expanded rapidly in Japan. The warriors' endeavor to have access to the most advanced weapons in Japan also had a great impact on the development of commerce in Japan. After Portuguese sailors became the first Europeans to reach Japan in 1543 ( Takagi and Fukuda 1971), the Japanese warriors recognized that Westerners had developed more advanced weapon systems. Since then, the Japanese were interested in interacting with Westerners, although they kept an official policy of ostracism. Their interest in Western culture was highlighted in the so-called Dutch studies ( Takagi and Fukuda 1971). Through the Dutch, who were in Japan for various reasons, the Japanese extensively studied advanced Western learning in many fields other than just weaponry. They adapted useful ideas more effectively than any other Asian nation. Japan, therefore, never closed her doors completely to foreigners except during certain periods. This access to Western culture was one of the driving forces for the restoration movement of 1868 in Japan, and it also partially explains why Japan became the first nation in Asia to undergo such a movement. On the contrary, interaction between Koreans and Westerners was quite limited. China was the only country with which Korea had extensive relations and trade, including tribute. Koreans considered anything related to China admirable. By contrast, trade with Japan was not prosperous and took place only intermittently. Koreans interacted with Westerners when shipwrecked Dutch sailors landed on the Korean coast in 1628 and 1653 ( Han 1989), but Korean officials never took advantage of these opportunities. There were also other occasions to interact with Westerners in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but Koreans refused to use such opportunities for their benefit. Unfortunately, Western learning never had any significant impact on Koreauntil the arrival of Roman Catholic Church missionaries during the latter part of the eighteenth century. As a result, Korea remained one of the most secluded countries for many years until foreign powers forced the Korean government to open her doors in the latter part of the nineteenth century. A commercial treaty was signed in 1876 with Japan, and similar treaties were arranged in 1882 with the United States and -15- then China. Korea had followed China's leadership closely for so many years that her government was not flexible enough to make independent decisions for the country. You cannot understand the Korean culture and people until you comprehend the yin-yang concept. The Korean people perceive the universe in terms of dual cosmic forces. One force represents a positive aspect; the other represents a negative aspect. For example, sun, male, spring, sunny spot, day, and odd numbers belong to yang (positive); moon, female, fall, shady spot, night, and even numbers belong to yin (negative). The Koreans were so fanatic about this dualism that they expressed their sentiment on their national flag. The SouthKorean flag has a circle in the center with a dividing line, which represents the yin-yang concept. Through this yin-yang concept, the Koreans perceive differences in the universe: between sun and moon, male and female, spring and fall, sunny spot and shady spot, and odd numbers and even numbers. However, they also perceive the complementary nature of these differences, for example, between male and female. Nothing is complete unless these pairs match each other and function accordingly. Each element in a positive/negative pair needs the other to become a complete substance: A male needs a female, the sun needs the moon, and the spring needs the fall. Through this matching process, these pairs fulfill a synergistic effect. In the yin-yang concept, the coexistence between different pairs is a requirement. Understanding this difference-complement dichotomy is essential to understanding the Oriental culture and the Korean culture. It has one important distinction: A sense of hatred because one sees a difference, but no sense of conquest, destruction, or enmity can develop because a part needs the other part as complement. The other part must be cherished, not destroyed. In this world of yin-yang, there also is no value system. The moon is as important as the sun, because we need night as well as we need day. In one sense, yin-yang is a value-free and doctrinefree concept. To the Korean people, the dualism of God and the devil is an alien and unfamiliar perception. A god and a devil, of course, are different, but they are not complementary to each other. Devils as threatening evils must be conquered or destroyed. This is a holy war. A god-abiding person cannot accept, tolerate, or coexist with a devil-abiding person. Godabiding people must prevail throughout. We cannot simply accept the existence of a devil-dominated world. The evil world must be destroyed or conquered. This is really a zero-sum game. The yin-yang concept has a great implication to the Korean management system through Korean culture and behavior of the Korean people. You can see peaceful coexistence of various religions in South Korea, but there has never been extensive interaction among them. No religion -16- has ever developed a perception that other religions are evil and must, therefore, be conquered or destroyed. A concept of holy religious war has never developed against other religions in Korea. This brings some uncomfortable feelings among Korean Christians who have been indoctrinated that Christianity is the only religion that does not recognize the existence of any gods of other religions. In church, the Korean Christians behave exactly like real Christians. Outside church, they transform themselves into Korean Christians who unwillingly acknowledge the existence of other religions and the yin-yang concept of different but complementary relationships. In one sense, Korean Christians live in two different worlds: a world of no compromise, and a world of compromise and complement. The Korean Christians are really yin-yang Christians who have to reconcile their Korean cultural heritage with Christian doctrines. They believe in Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shamanism as mentioned before; therefore, they practice Christianity in a culture that inherited and cherished the values of teachings of various religions and philosophies. To Korean Christians, ecumenism has a different meaning from that to a Westerner. It is a movement among different religions in addition to a movement among different denominations of the Christian church. Some scholars defend the dialogue between Christianity and Confucianism. In the conference meeting of The Korean Society for Religious Study in North America, some Korean-American scholars presented papers on the necessity of a dialogue between the two religions. Scholars argued that some common ground can be found between Christianity and Confucianism. During the Korean presidential election campaign in 1992, three major presidential candidates attended an important Buddhist ritual because they needed to court the votes of Buddhists, which is the largest religious group in South Korea. Kim Young Sam is a Presbyterian elder; Kim Dae Jung is a Catholic; and Chung Ju Yung does not belong to any religious group. As a church elder, Kim Young Sam complied with the Buddhist ritual without violating his Christian practice. As a devout Catholic, Kim Dae Jung did not comply significantly with the ritual. As presidential candidates, they must be extremely careful not to alienate themselves from Buddhist believers in order to court their votes. Chung Ju Yung, free from any religious restrictions, participated in the ritual without reservations. The example of these presidential candidates demonstrates a typical behavioral pattern of Koreans: accommodating their culture and their religious practices. In conclusion, the Korean management system shares many features with other management systems. However, it is unique in the sense that the Korean culture has its distinctive features, and a management system is a function of its own culture. Of course, Korean people share the -17- Chinese culture with the Chinese and the Japanese. Still, Koreans have developed a unique cultural pattern different from that of both China and Japan. In this chapter, we also investigated some of the probable reasons why Korea failed to modernize its country and its economy as Japan did in the nineteenth century. The difference may be attributed to cultural nuances and geopolitical factors. The latter is the subject of the next chapter. REFERENCES Eliade M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 14. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987. Han W. K. Hankuk Tongsa (History of Korea). Seoul: Ulyu Moonhwasa, 1989. Hirschmeier J. and Yui T. The Development of Japanese Business, 1600- 1980. 2d ed. London and Boston: George Allen & Unwin, 1981. Takagi K. and Fukuda M. (eds.). Nihonno Rekishi (History of Japan). Vols. 2-3. Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1971. -18- 10The Korean Management System and Management Systems of Japan and the United States Is the Korean management system unique and different from other management systems such as the Japanese and the American systems? The answer to this question is both "yes" and "no." All management systems have a common feature: They strive to enhance the performance of organizations in the most effective way to achieve the organizations' goals. The Korean management system shares with other management systems in this regard. From this perspective, we may state that all management systems function under universally applicable principles of planning, organization, control, leadership, and motivation. However, the Korean management system is unique in that it is also culturally bounded. It strives to enhance the performance of organizations in the most effective way within the context of the Korean culture. Likewise, both Japanese and American management systems are unique because they function in the context of their own cultures. A study of the Korean management system along with both Japanese and American management systems will highlight the unique features of the Korean management system. We have chosen the management systems of Japan and the United States just because these two management systems have had a significant impact on that of Korea. When the Japanese occupied Koreafrom 1910 until the end of World War II, the Japanese brought a modernized or Westernized management system to Korea. The current Japanese management system is really a blend of their traditional management system with elements of the Westernized management system. While this management system was -129- being practiced by the Japanese in Korea, Koreans integrated the Japanese management system into their own. Even today, the organizational hierarchical structure, for example, is mostly the same in both South Korea and Japan. All the hierarchical ranks of an organization are expressed by the same Chinese characters, although each country pronounces them differently. It is interesting to see the similarity between South Korea and Japan on official ranks in an organization: RanksJapanSouth KoreaChairmankaichohwoichangPresidentShachosachangExecutive DirectorsenmujeonmuManaging DirectorjomusangmuDirectorrijieesahDepartment ManagerbuchopuchangDeputy Department ManagerjichochachangSection ChiefkachokwachangDeputy Section ChiefdairidaerheeChief ClerkkakarichokaychangRegular Staff MembersShainsawonRegardless of this similarity, the Korean management system has its own unique features because of the influence of the Korean cultural background. We will demonstrate these unique features when we investigate both the management systems of Japan and South Korea. Since the end of World War II, the American management system has also had a great impact on the Korean management system. American culture has intruded into every aspect of South Korean society, and the Korean management system is no exception. More specifically, the American management system had been a symbol of effectiveness and efficiency in the past, and South Korean managers have tried to adopt many applicable concepts of the American system to their management system. Many Korean college professors have earned their masters and doctoral degrees from American universities and have taught their students what they learned from the United States. Koreans have adopted, for example, the term "marketing" because they cannot find an adequate word expressing the concept of marketing, although they have tried hard to locate a suitable Korean term. Regardless of this massive infusion of American management concepts, the Korean management system still remains different from the American management system because of cultural influences on management practice. Although the Korean management system has never -130- been analyzed as extensively as the American management system, distinctive features of the Korean management system have emerged from a comparative study with the American and the Japanese management systems.Because the purpose of this chapter is to investigate the unique features of the Korean management system vis-à-vis Japanese and American management systems, a possible approach is to identify unique features of each management system and then to investigate their causes.
