Why quasi experimental design are high in external validity?

What are the disciplines of education?

The short answer to the question is that there are three fundamental disciplines for research and inquiry about the educational process. They are the disciplines for verification of analytic statements, normative statements and empirical statements about the education educational process.In relation to the three fundamental disciplines of education, the following distinctions are critical.There is the educational process,There is the activity of conducting research or inquiry about the educational processin order to produce knowledge about the educational process,There is knowledge about the educational process which is produced by successful, disciplined research or inquiry about the educational process.There are the rules of evidence and proof which must be followed to support the claims that the statements produced by the research or inquiry about the educational process are true or warranted.Confusion is caused by people (academics in universities, researchers who conduct inquiry about the educational process, teachers, people in general) using the terms field, study and disciplineinterchangeably to name these four different things. They also use the term education to name these four things. So there is no wonder that the discourse about education is confusing and that there are seemingly no differences among field, study, discipline and education!Confusion in discourse about the educational process can be dispelled if you sort out the four critical categories as follows.Field of phenomena:A field of phenomena is a set of occurrences which happen or exist. In the field of phenomena which we name with the term education, there are teachers guiding students in their study, students following the guidance of their teachers in their study, some content being taught and studied, some learning goals being pursued, some methods of teaching and studying being used, some cultural, social and physical setting in which the teaching and studying takes place, etc. Research or inquiry can be conducted about the field or parts of the field of the educational process. Examples of parts of the educational process include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, vocational education, special education, physical education, mathematics education, science education, education for social equity, education for women, etc.Activity of conducting research or inquiry about the educational process. Various people (university academics, professional researchers) conduct research about the educational process. They do this by asking and answering questions about the educational process. They seek evidence to substantiate their answers so that the answers qualify as warranted assertions (or knowledge) about the educational process. Researchers intend to produce true statements about the educational process which can be shown to be true with the appropriate, necessary and sufficient evidence.Fund of knowledge.Successful research or inquiry produces true statements or knowledge. The collection of true statements which can be made about the educational process makes up the total fund of knowledge about the educational process. A useful name for the total fund of knowledge about the educational process is the term educology. The use of the term educology avoids the confusion of mistaking the educational process (education) for knowledge about the educational process (educology). The total fund can be organized into smaller collections or subfunds of knowledge about the educational process. For example, there can be scientific knowledge about the educational process (i.e. knowledge about existing states of affairs in the educational process, or scientific educology). There can be praxiological knowledge about the educational process (i.e. knowledge about effective practices of teaching, studying, counseling, etc. in the educational process, or praxiological educology). There is historical knowledge about the educational process (i.e. knowledge about past states of affairs in the educational process, or historical educology). There can be normative philosophical knowledge about the educational process (i.e. knowledge about good and bad states of affairs in the educational process, or normative philosophical educology). There can be analytic philosophical knowledge about the educational process (i.e. knowledge about the meaning of terms and sentences used in discourse about the educational process, or analytic philosophical educology).Discipline for conducting inquiry. The discipline followed by the researchers in their inquiry is the set of rules of proof and the methods of evidence gathering which they must follow in order to present warranted knowledge claims about the educational process. At least three broad rules of proof are used. They are the rules for verification of analytic, normative and empirical knowledge about the educational process. Analytic discipline, normative discipline and empirical discipline are the three fundamental disciplines used for producing knowledge about the educational process.Analytic Discipline.Analytic discipline uses the principle of necessity reasoning. This discipline requires that a statement be judged true (i.e. warranted) when it is necessarily implied by a set of premises (i.e. a set of preceding statements). The principle of necessity reasoning is the same as the principle of deduction. Techniques of analytic inquiry include term isolation, definition, explication, model case, contrary case, borderline case, imaginary case, related concepts, unrelated concepts, practical consequences, language results, underlying anxieties, social context, term substitution and new terms techniques. Other analytic techniques include statistical analyses (analysis of variance, correlation, etc.) An example of an analytic statement about the educational process is the following:"Students always learn from effective teaching."Normative Discipline. Normative discipline uses the principle of normative reasoning. This discipline requires that a statement be judged true when it is necessarily implied by a set of criteria (i.e. standards or rules or both). In addition, those criteria must be consistent with a set of values or norms to which all persons can reasonably adhere if they were in the same set of circumstances and they were free to make a rational choice. The principle of normative reasoning is the same as the principle of evaluative reasoning or the principle of evaluation. Techniques of normative inquiry include value clarification, value validation, value vindication and rational choice. An example of a normative statement about the educational process is the following."Plagiarism by students in their assignments should be condemned."Empirical Discipline. Empirical discipline requires the use of the principle of observation. This discipline requires that a statement be judged true (i.e. an assertion be affirmed as warranted) if it is consistent with observable evidence of objects, actions, behaviors or states of affairs which occur or exist in the natural world. Empirical techniques of inquiry include survey, experimentation, quasi-experimentation, analogy, unobtrusive measures, case studies, participant observation, systematic observation, simulations, ethnographies, naturalistic studies. An example of an empirical statement is,"Twenty-two percent of university students admit to having plagiarized on at least one assignment."All three fundamental disciplines are needed to produce knowledge about the educational process.Organization of Knowledge about the Educational Process (Organization of Educology). Once knowledge about the educational process has been produced through successful, disciplined inquiry, it can be organized into any number of funds of knowledge. The organization is usually done in relation to what the knowledge is describing or characterizing. For example, there can beHistory of Education (or Historical Educology): the fund of knowledge about past states of affairs in the educational process;Science of Education (or Scientific Educology): the fund of knowledge about existing states of affairs in the educational process;Praxiology of Education (or Praxiological Educology): the fund of knowledge about effective practices in the educational process;Normative Philosophy of Education (or Normative Philosophical Educology): the fund of knowledge about good and bad states of affairs in the educational process;Analytic Philosophy of Education (or Analytic Philsophical Educology): the fund of knowledge about the meanings of terms and sentences used in discourse about the educational process.The five funds listed above are not disciplines. They are collections of organized knowledge, not the rules for conducting inquiry to verified knowledge claims about the educational process.Other organizations of knowledge into funds are, of course, possible and very common. For example, there isThe fund of knowledge about the education of women (the educology of women's education);The fund of knowledge about physical education (the educology of physical education);The fund of knowledge about teaching and studying mathematics (the educology of mathematics education);The fund of knowledge about the uses of computers in education (the educology of computers as a teaching and learning resource);The fund of knowledge about early childhood education (the educology of early childhood education), etc. (the list can go, does go in real life, on and on).So, to keep your thinking about the educational process straight and clear, maintain these five basic critical distinctions:The educational process is a field of phenomena about which research and inquiry can be conducted,Conducting research about the educational process is the activity of asking questions, answering questions and substantiating the answers with the necessary and sufficient evidence to warrant the answers as being true, i.e. as being knowledge,The discipline for conducting research is the set of rules of proof and the methods of evidence gathering which researchers must follow in order to present warranted knowledge claims about the educational process; there are three basic sets of rules, or disciplines: the disciplines for analytic, empirical and normative inquiry.The fund of knowledge about the educational process is the collection of true statements about the educational process which are produced by sound, well disciplined research and inquiry, following the analytic, empirical and normative rules of proof and evidence gathering.The general fund of knowledge about the educational process is educology. Parts of educology can be organized into smaller funds or collections of true statements about the educational process.

What is the difference between indigenous educational system in Cameroon and the educational system introduced by the colonial masters?

THE INDIGENOUS SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN CAMEROONBefore the advent of the Whiteman, the Cameroonian society had a curriculum on how to educate their young ones. The indigenous system of education refers to the process used by the indigenes of Cameroon to educate their young ones to acquire knowledge ,skills and attitudes are of .value to themselves and to the society around them. This system of education was based on certain philosophies , which they saw as fundamental to all learning, they included ; Communalism, Preparationism , Perenialism, Holisticism and Functionalism. These philosophies reflected what the indigenes required of their children. Below is a summary of the various indigenous philosophies of education.Communalism; This was an approach in which children were raised within a community to see one another as their brothers keeper .the well-being of the group was the well-being of the individual, thus the child was taught to be social. Children acquired this socializing attitude by participating in group activities like building and construction. The children were taught a sense of solidarity that is, participating in each others sorrows and joys.Preparationism; Here the children are trained and prepared to take on future responsibilities according to gender. The boys are trained to become future husbands and the girls future wives. They also learn economic activities such as farming, hunting, building which will help them in sustaining their future families.Perenialism; This was a philosophical approach in which children were required to learn in order to perpetuate their culture. The culture of a tribe was to be learned by the younger generation so that it should not disappear, it should continue from generation to generation.Holisticism;This philosophy required that an individual learn all the activities in thecommunity;farming,building,fishing,craftsmanship,etc without specialization.Thhis approach was possible because of the simple technology that existed at the time.Knowledge was not compactmentalised,that is,divided.All the activities were linked in one way or the other.Functionalism; This approach held the view that all what was learned had an immediate value in the society. The curriculum was learned and applied immediately in the society, that is a child being trained to cook, cooked, a child who learned to farm, farmed. Since the child saw that what he/she was learning was beneficial both to the society and himself, he needed no motivation. For example,a child learned to make a fishing net because it will help him in catching fish This philosophy required the child to work while learning in order to see its usefulness.The education of the Cameroon indigenous child starts from birth,with its mother being the sole teacher till about 6 years. But in some areas like the Bamileke, in the Western province, the child is usually under the care of an older sibling aged about 10, who assists his mother in taking care of the child. As the child grows older, extended relatives of the family and the community help in educating the child.The curriculum was drawn from the physical, economic, social and cultural environments; the norms, values. customs and beliefs of indigenous Cameroon. The children were taught social conducts, that is, how to behave in the community in relation to elders and peers. The children were taught to distinguish between the left and right hand. The child was taught that the right hand was for eating and greeting elders while the left hand was used in handling waste products from the body. The child was taught to take his breakfast only after having his bath, which consisted mainly of washing the face and cleaning the mouth. Sexual intimacy was not tolerated. Stealing was also considered a serious offense as it brought disrepute to the child's family.Academically the children were taught subjects such as; History, Geography, literature, Music, Science, Mathematics, Religion and Language.Geography; The children were taught the boundaries of the tribe, the weather , time was calculated by looking at the length of a shadow on a sunny day.. The child was made to be familiar with hills, fertile and unfertile lands and the seasons of farming and fishing.History; they were taught the origin of their tribe, its ancestors and its evolution. These lessons were delivered by elders For example history lessons in the indigenous education of the Douala child involved reciting the genealogical tree up to the 12th generation. The objective is to teach family solidarity so as to avoid incest.Literature; This was done mostly in the evening after work. Young people sat in groups to listen to stories told by elders. In the process they learned myths, folklore, riddles. proverbs, poetry and lyrics.Music; This is one of the most important subjects of the curriculum. The child starts singing and dancing at an early age. Boys learn how to beat drums. Songs are sung during festivals, fishing,wrestling, rituals and funerals.Mathematics; Counting is taught using the fingers and objects. They were taught to count cowries(which was their legal tender).They had concepts in mathematical notions such as addition, substraction, multiplication and division.Natural sciences; In Biology children were taught the different kinds of plants and their uses(medicinal and edible). They were also taught how to dissect animals, this is seen when they slaughter an animal and use some of its parts for rituasls.Chemistry was taught during cooking and palm wine tapping.how to ferment palm wine to produce spirits and the propotion of ingredients to put in a pot of soup. Physics was also seen when you produce fire by hitting 2 stones.Language; Language is taught through contact between mother and child at the home. Children are taught to speak their dialect and are corrected when the make mistakes.Vocational training was also a part of the Cameroon indigenous educational system. Agriculture, Trade, Crafts and Professions were some of the training handed down to the younger generation.In Agriculture, children were taught different food crops, suitable and unsuitable soils, when to clear the farm, till, weed, plant and harvest. Mixed farming was the kind of agriculture practiced.Trade and Crafts; They included weaving, smelting, hunting, carving, painting and decoration, carpentry, building, soap making, trading. These trades were taught on apprentice basis or by families.Professions; It included doctors. priests, witchdoctors, village heads, tax collectors and, .messengers. These professions included the highest level of indigenous education.With regards to Levels of education, Cameroon education consisted of three levels-the first level is learning that takes place in the child's home, the second level is learning acquired on your initiation into community and the third level is learning acquired with initiation to secret societies.These levels of education correspond to the western system of Primary, Secondary and Higher respectively.WESTERN POLICIES OF EDUCATIONWestern education was introduced into the Cameroonian society through missionary societies like the English Baptist Missionary Society. Following the scramble for and the conquest of Cameroon by Germany,the English Baptist Missionary Society was replaced by the Basel Mission. With the advent of these Europeans the traditional system of education started declining and was replaced by the colonial system of education.THE GERMAN-QUASI ASSIMILATIONIST POLICY OFEDUCATIONThe German colonial policy of education was rooted in her master race theory. According to this policy cameroonians of all social classes were taught to regard their German masters as their superiors[Ngoh 1996].Her policy was based on her desire to promote German culture and civilization. They were quick to recognise the fact that language was the key to the promotion of culture and civilization, and so they made the German language the official language which was to be taught in schools.Reading,Writing and Orthography were taught in all classes and carried a high number of teaching hours per week. Other subjects in the curriculum included, Arithmetic, Moral principles and Behaviour, German history,Geography, Natural history and History of the territory.All these subjects were taught using the German language. The educational system of Froebel influenced the German authorities in Cameroon to include Manual training in the curriculum of German schools.They solicited the services of experienced teachers who had received training in German schools. The first of such teachers and educationist was Theodore Christaller. The teaching staff were Europeans who had a sound education and professional background.By 1912,there were four government elementary shools in Victoria, Douala, Garoua and Yaounde. The government operated more of vocational schools so as to have man power in the various services and trade centres created by them. These included Plantations, Diaries, Hospitals, Police,etc.THE BRITISH ADAPTIONIST EDUCATIONAL POLICYAfter the departure of the Germans in 1916, Britain and France partitioned Cameroon between them. Britain attached her part of Cameroon to Nigeria and administerd it as part of Nigeria, and so the educational policy dealing with the creation of schools, the curriculum, finance and the registration of teachers were those of Nigeria. Britain showed a laissez faire attitude toward Cameroon. She relegated her educational duties to the missionaries who bore the burden with no assistance from the British governmentThe official language was changed to English. German schools were closed down. The Indirect rule system gave birth to Native Administrative structures which began a school system in 1922 for lower levels. Under native supervision the schools used their vernacular in teaching the lower classes. Their main objective was mass education. They introduced a system of training native teachers who taught in the schools. Schools were built and operated by the native Cameroonians themselves through the collection of taxes.By basing the development of education in Cameroon on the adaptation philosophy, a decentralised educational system developed in which government missions and companies like C.D.C, Pamol, operated separate schools under the overall control of the British colonial administration.THE FRENCH ASSIMILATIONIST POLI CY OF EDUCATIONFrench educational policy in Cameroon originated from the French desire to transform the Cameroonians into black Frenchmen. They wanted them to inculcate French culture. They taught the natives the French language so that they will think like Frenchmen. To succeed they preached the ideas of Equality, Fraternity and Fatherland. Their policy aimed at eliminating African culture.The French opened basically three types of schools,the village schools,the regional schools and higher elementary schools at the head quarters. These schools were for the elites who were trained as helpers of the French administration.The curriculum consisted of Hygiene, Agriculture, Animal husbandry, local crafts, Reading and Writing, Arithmetic, Singing and Drawing, Only the best students were admitted to the regional and higher elementary schools. By 1925 there were 14 government village primary schools and 51 teachers of Cameroonian origin.The time-table was divided into two sessions.the morning session from 8am-10.15am, while the afternoon session from 2pm-5.15pm.SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE TWO SYSTEMSThe two systems divided knowledge into academic disciplines. They both considered language as indispensible to them. Education was distinguished into levels,that is, Primary, Secondary and Higher. Only the best students were allowed to further their studies. Considering the resources, Agriculture was of utmost importance and ought to be learned.DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO SYSTEMSThey differed in their aims and objectives. The western powers educated the Cameroonians so that they could work in their establishments while the indigenes educated their children so that they could be useful to themselves and to the society.While the indigenes educated their children at home ,the colonial authorities built schools in which pupils could learn.The children in the colonial era were taught by teachers while those in the indigenous system had the parents, relatives and members of the community as their teachersREFERENCESMac Ojong,T. [2008] Philosophical and Historical Foundations of Education inCameroon 1844-1960.Web-based Resources.

Why quasi experimental design are high in external validity?

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