What did Einstein consider was the greatest blunder of his career and how did it impact his work in theoretical physics?

How much work will it take to a lift a 2-kg pair of hiking boots 2 meters off the ground and onto a shelf in your closet?

The boots have to acquire additional gravitational potential energy of 4 kg-m. That's theminimum work you have to do, depending on the efficiency of your muscular efforts.====================================================Another contributor spotted my blunder on this one, and hostilely but correctly called me on it.Unfortunately, his correction was so belligerently stated that the supervisor removed it, soI'll now supply the correction:Work is (force) times (distance).The gravitational potential energy added by lifting the 2-kg object ... and the work to get it there ...is the weight of 2 kg times the distance.The weight of 2 kg is (m g) = 19.6 newtons.The work is (weight) times (distance) = (19.6) x (2) = 39.2 newton-meters = 39.2 joules(Plus of course the additional energy that your muscles have to dissipate in order to generate39.2 joules of useful output.)

How much work will it take to lift a 2 kg pair of hiking boots 2 meters off the ground and onto a shelf in your closet?

The boots have to acquire additional gravitational potential energy of 4 kg-m. That's theminimum work you have to do, depending on the efficiency of your muscular efforts.====================================================Another contributor spotted my blunder on this one, and hostilely but correctly called me on it.Unfortunately, his correction was so belligerently stated that the supervisor removed it, soI'll now supply the correction:Work is (force) times (distance).The gravitational potential energy added by lifting the 2-kg object ... and the work to get it there ...is the weight of 2 kg times the distance.The weight of 2 kg is (m g) = 19.6 newtons.The work is (weight) times (distance) = (19.6) x (2) = 39.2 newton-meters = 39.2 joules(Plus of course the additional energy that your muscles have to dissipate in order to generate39.2 joules of useful output.)

What is a fulcrum of the debate?

For my money the fulcrum of a debate is the essential valued principal or desired outcome of the debate. It's the main underlying reason why both sides claim superiority in their arguments. Ideally the fulcrum is the central point or common ground that both sides agree is crucial and that both lay claim to with their arguments. Take the war in Iraq. The fulcrum here would likely be an outcome - be it victory or withdrawal - that is in the best interests of all parties concerned: the U.S., the Middle East and especially the Iraqi people. Sometimes there is no fulcrum. In the debate on Iraq, for instance, a right winger might openly relegate the interests of the Iraqi people to the need for the U.S. to develop a strong presence in the Mideast and advance its interests worldwide. And a left winger might argue that the U.S has no business in Iraq, that the war is a strategic blunder and a waste of taxpayer dollars and American lives. In this situation, the fate of the Iraqi people is secondary to rival conceptions of the national interest. There is no fulcrum. So how might you win this debate? You could try to establish a true fulcrum by pointing out that both sides, right and left, ignore the interests of the people we've invaded and by saying that no democracy worthy of the name can maintain its standing in the community of nations by doing so. This sounds good, but what if the costs of doing right by the Iraqi people are too high - or the possibility of improving their lives is too low?

Contribution of thermodynamics to society?

In 19th century, matter and energy have been complementary to each other and has fascinated Einstein for relativity theory that led him to make nuclear bomb which smashed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the important cities of Japan, in 1945. In history of human civilization this event was termed as second sun as it generated radiations equivalent to those of sun. Thus creation of heat can be defined as thermos means temperature and dynamics means motion to coin the word thermodynamics. There was a total devastation of life and matter at and around Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Similarly Chernobyl a Russian nuclear explosion in August 1986 destroyed the civilization. In year 1953, a smog accident at London killed thousands of people due to suffocation. An accident of release of a methyl isocyanides at Indian city Bhopal killed and affected thousands of the people. The above quoted incidents occurred due to the effects of the energy and inhalation of the poisonous gases. Living beings are highly vulnerable to extreme conditions because the origin of life has been emphasized as alignment and association of the nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), hydrogen (H2) gases and sulfur (S) together. Their combination form amino acids, proteins and others to compose life system. Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey, in year 1953, at the University of Chicago, conducted a historic experiment taking methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) gases and water (H2O) molecules in closed systems. For this experiment the thermodynamics played key role for supplying required energy to the individual gas molecules for chemical bond formation on combining. A passage of continuous electric current through the system simulated lightning storms believed to be common on the early earth, after a week, Miller observed 10-15% of the carbon in the form of organic compounds. 2% of the carbon had formed some of the amino acids and proteins, an essential to cellular life. Juan Oro, in 1961, prepared amino acids from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in an aqueous solution followed by nucleotide base like adenine. The adenine is of tremendous biological significance5 and is one of the four bases in RNA and DNA. It is also a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a major energy-releasing molecule in cells. These discoveries created a stir within the science community for solving a puzzle of origin of life within a few decades. The lighting storms are believed to be extremely common on primitive Earth which were not continuous as the Miller/Urey experiment portrayed. Again it reflects the mutual relationship among energy and matter. On September 28, 1969, a meteorite fell over Murchison, Australia while only 100 kilograms were recovered. An analysis of the meteorite found it rich with amino acids and over 90 amino acids were identified by researchers to date. Nineteen of these acids are found on Earth. The early Earth is believed to be similar to many of the asteroids and comets still roaming the galaxy. If amino acids are able to survive in outer space under extreme conditions then this infers presence of amino acids when the Earth was formed. New theories have recently been offered as alternative sites for the origin of life. An alignment and association of chemical gases conserve energy in the form of molecules, which sustain life, and Newton's observation about falling of apple from a tree to downward further emphasized a key position of energy. An evolution of civilization through various experimental realizations has proven a role of energy monitored by thermodynamic process. Similarly a human energy was utilized for construction of world famous and thousands years old Pyramid at Cairo, Egypt. The workers loaded heavy and bigger sized stones on wooden planks and did float on water of river Nile for transportation to the pyramid site. The energy has brought revolutionary changes in our civilization for example Chinese and Indian inks were prepared by burning the wood to convert it into the wooden coals which were converted into fine powder and mixed with mustard oils. Similarly Harrappa and Mohan Jodaro, a century old big buildings were constructed following lock and key concept based on the socket and cone joints of bones of elbow and knees of our body. At countryside for centuries grandmothers used to burn mustard oil with cotton wick through capillary action and collect its soot on neat and clean metallic surfaces especially on brass or iron and applied in eyes for adsorbing the secretion. During stone and metallic ages of our civilization, the stones were shaped up to the different designs to manifolds an impulse for hunting the prey. These forms conserve and liberate energy transforming from one form to another as burning of oil to soot. Egyptians understood thermodynamics in a better way, they knew pushing heavy wooden planks on water surface reduces frictional forces and minimum human energy was needed for transportations. The water potential was noticed centuries ago and dams were constructed at Mississippi and Niles to make water falls for rotating the turbine for energy to generate electricity and irrigational works. Paddling of cycle, letter typing machines, bull carts, churners for churning curd to whey, horse carts, swing machines, ships were operated manually. A best form of human energy conversion, the machine was run with human energy. In fact if we go deeper, the human energy harnessed from food is partly stored in muscles and was used for operating the machines. Similarly levers were developed which were very effective to economize the human energy for example the rollers were not pushed from back but were pulled forwards from front to minimize the human energy consumption. Thus these scientific developments were revolved around the energy conversion from one form to another and termed as thermodynamic by Joule Thompson, Carnot and Cannon Rumford in 18th countries. Since the thermodynamics has been an indispensable part of the human sciences and civilizations. Thus in ancient times the major cities were established at the banks of big rivers due to easier transportation and as sources of water for drinking, irrigation, cottage industries and transportation. In this context, river Nile in African countries is considered highly revered and is boon to Egypt, Sudan, Ghana, Ethiopia, Somalia and Nigeria etc. In India, rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sarswati etc. were taken in very high esteem and Delhi at bank Yamuna, Alhabad at trivani or pragraj, kolkata at Humbly, Mumbai, Madras at coastal areas, are situated. So the energy science understood as thermodynamics is essential to understand the human aspect. During British India various dams for energy production were constructed like Tungbhadra dam at Krishna-Cavery, Rihand, Hirakund, Nagarjun Sagar at Krishna River, Cauvery, Periyar, Ramagundam, Bhakra Nangal, and Salal project at Chenab River. Theses were eco-friendly techniques with no pollution hazards, the replacement of these techniques causing hazards. The replacement of cycle, bull cart and horse carts by engine run motors are emitting tone and tones of the CO, CO2, NO2 (NO, NO2, NO3) and SOx (SO2, SO3), the polluting gases causing global warming. The blunder, which the machines are doing, is that stamina of the human being is deteriorated. Boon: Farther the liberation of calories from food is well known and lays down the foundation of the traditional thermodynamics and establish the q = DE + PDV relation, a first law of thermodynamics. The q is heat, the DE energy liberated from food, P pressure and DV volume change when food is digested in the food canal of the body. Putting no volume and pressure change, the q = DE exists which decides the intake of food. A concept of eating jugglery after lunch and dinner for intake of iron and other useful vitamins is centaury old tradition in Indian society. By practice our ancestors carried forward this tradition generation to generation. The families who used to stick to the concept that as you eat so you reap leads to have sound mind in sound body. The traditions of wearing of types of clothes are monitored by the thermodynamics and illuminate the human side of science. Newton's observation of falling of apple from tree to down towards earth was based on potential energy due to height and the matter energy-relation fascinated Einstein to make nuclear bomb. Weather forecasting in itself is big traditional thermodynamics, where moistures and pressure gradient are basic parameters. In villages people still guess in advance about the rainfall by watching the movement of ants and certain birds. The ants very accurately sense the change in humidity and start taking out their eggs from their underground nests. Similarly the tailor birds start making nests at heighted trees. Thus the villager's gues that increases in humidity forecasts rainfall in coming days. During heating the milk boils out of the heating bowl while water does not. This is due to a layer formation of the fat of the milk on the upper surface during heating because of its low density. The layer thickens during heating and acts as cover to push back the milk vapors and kinetic energy of the milk molecules get accumulated and a state comes when the layer can not bear with the internal energy DE and suddenly bursts out with large amount of the milk. But water heating simply breaks its hydrogen bonds. Origin: James Watt, a naughty boy, in year 1750 noticed an experimental relevance of thermodynamics with uplifting of the lid of a kettle being used for boiling the water for cooking. Watt coined the word horsepower as horses powered water pumps in mines. It laid down the foundation of the railway engines, and in 1799, Humphry Davy melted ice by rubbing two ice cubs together. Latter in year 1824, Sadi Carnot and Cannon Ford, observed generation of heat when iron screw was used to make hole in the wooden logs. It was supported by count Rumford for boring cannon experiment in 18th and early 19th century. The handle of a screw was rotated manually putting mechanical energy to work. Partly it evolved heat during process, later on the ideas of Watt, Carnot and Ford laid down the foundation of the first law of thermodynamics as q = DE+PDV. The q denotes the heat contents, the DE internal energy and the PDV the mechanical work done by or on the system. It successfully converts mechanical energy into the electrical. Benjamin Thompson in 1790's, for measuring the power of light coined the word candlepower for candlelight as standard. Similarly James Joule in 1840's gave the Joule as standard unit for energy measurement, which is still in use. There are other glaring discoveries where our ancestors of human race developed the fire by rubbing the dried wooden logs that generates fire by friction. These were the developing grounds for the thermodynamics. Description: Truly the thermodynamics assist to achieve a best equilibrium among the pressure, temperatures, mass and energy. It is made of two words, the thermo that means temperature and the dynamics the motion. Its real meaning could be understood by considering several states of the water which are useful in society. At low temperature the liquid water is solid and referred to as ice while at optimum temperature is liquid state and at above 1000C, the gaseous form (vapor). Practically the vapor is used to generate electricity by rotating the turbine at thermal power stations for steam engines. The windmills for centuries were the most traditional power in villages for pumping out the water from the deep grounds. The air pressure for centuries is being used as a big potential by farmers to separate out the food grains from the straw of the wheat crops etc. The watermills were emerged in 18th centuries as a source of a natural power to rotate the turbine attached directly to the axle fitted with the grinding stones to grind the wheat, maize, gram and other food grains into flour. Few example like at higher altitude the pressure is low hence cooking of vegetables takes longer time and more fuel was consumed. The training area of the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering (NIM) Utterkashi is at very high altitudes, I personally observed that the cooking of rice or any food item takes longer time. In year 1996, I had experienced when undergone a month mountaineering course. In general, the ladies used to wet or dip the solid grains of grams, soyabeans, peas etc, and spices in fresh and clean water prior cooking. This process was well known by our forefathers and they were aware about the significance of thermodynamics. It was noted to be the most useful and time saving device and enriching the food, with softening the food nutrients. It saves lot of biogas or fuels energy. The table 1 depicts that the wet food grains take comparatively less time in cooking. Burning the fuel gas for less time saves the fuel and energy both. The gas burning for longer time for dried food grains costs much and is not economic. Table 1. Comparative cooking times for food grains. Food grains Amounts, g Time in min for dried Time in min for wet Grams 100 30 15 Soybeans 100 35 19 Mahoor dal 100 25 13 Rajma 100 33 18 The calorie of the 1g mol of the butane is -687.982 K calorie mol-1, and of methane -191.800 K calorie mpl-1. Thus the total time 123-65 = 58 min are saved and also a lot of gas and the time in kitchen for cooking. Natural events: Burning the fuel gases for smaller times saves energy, time and the gas. So a wetting concept of dried grains must be popularized in interest of the health and economic reasons. Another phenomenon like rain is a best example of the thermodynamics where the water vapors from south to North India from the oceans of the Hind and Arabian oceans, and from bay of the Bengal get transported to the North to fill the deficiency of the water moistures. This process is spontaneous or the natural one and is closely associated with the thermodynamics. The gallons and gallons of the water are being transported to North India through an open sky. Thus the thermodynamics of this phenomenon is a synonymy of each other. Similarly an evaporation of water moisture from the leaves of the trees, herbs and shrubs do add some moisture to the amount of the already water vapor. This process of the thermodynamics highlights the contributions of the trees. Thus the society must encourage tree plantation at each level to maintain the equilibrium and ecosystems. The learners can understand the meaning and worth of non-equilibrium system. A pressure gradient causes the energy gradient, which is calculated with equation1. DG = -2.303RT log K (1) The DG is free energy, and the K is equilibrium constant where K= p2/p1, the p1 water vapor pressure at southern India and the p2 at the northern and at northern the vapor pressure is lower than that of the southern. Thus the pressure moves from south to the north. This can be equated with the kinetics of the reactions where the reactants are decomposed with time and the rate of the reaction can be determined. The state is reached where the systems is equilibrated with respect to the concentration of the reactants. Similarly the rate constant K is represented as p1 at southern Û p2 at northern, and K = P2/P1. Thus the DG is free energy, which is the work, doing capacity of the environment due to pressure or moisture gradients within the framework of thermodynamic systems. This clarifies a concept of the Gibbs free energy, for example if the P1 = 1.5 bar and P2 = 1.0 bar, the log K = 0.17609 and the amount of DG = -1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1. This is the energy, which is being used to push up the water vapor to northern India. Thus the 1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1 is being used till the P1 = P2, at this condition the K=1 and the log K=0, it leads to have the DG=0. This predicts the movements of the water vapors are stabilized and the condensation is started in the form of the clouds with transition of the phase. The clouds after some time fall in the form of the rains. For farmers the thermodynamics has special significance for the crops when high-pressure difference is there the storms occur that distribute the seeds of the herbal plants and other useful trees. There are 4 seasons and the seed germination is temperature sensitive thus the wheat, maize, guar gum, pulses, oil seeds etc. are sown at the optimum temperature with some moisture contents. A quality control of oils could be made with Survismeter. The intelligent farmers generally dip the seed of the crops overnight before sowing them in the soil. It enhances the moisture contents in the seed, which help in quick and healthy germination of the seedling. This makes a better understanding of the thermodynamic applications in farming having several benefits to the society. The plants show much growth in rainy seasons due to water in plenty. The artificial thermodynamic conditions are being generated for growing of the seeds and flowering so that fresh fruits can be had at any seasons. For example at Tamil Naidu the mango plants give fruits in all seasons, as it is coastal area where almost same temperature prevails. Human thermodynamics, the sweating is very useful phenomenon and is closely related to the human body, due to sweating several harmful toxins come out of the body. Thus the living in air condition (AC) environment is harmful to the body because the toxins get accumulated in the body and accumulation in excess causes disease. Similarly the other way round is also beneficial for example in winter seasons the people rub their hands to generate heat due to friction, and expose minimum surface of their body to the environments to prevent dissipation of body heat. Currently due to the advancements, the thermodynamics is being defaced or deformed at domestic levels for example most of the ladies cook the food and for the time being store in freezes to prevent it from spoiling. It protects the food for time being but heating the eatable again and again before use is not good and destroys the calorie value. This makes overheating that must be avoided as in general, the overheating thermally decompose and denature the food items. Some of the valuable vitamins and other chemicals get lost in the heating process as vitamin C and iodine get vaporized and no more amounts is left in the food. An overheating of the milk loses the vitamin C, similarly at kitchen the ladies use oil for cooking the food. They dip the processed or the knitted flour of the food items in the hot oil. The used oil after cooking the food is stored and reused for further cooking. Thus the oil after heating several times gets saturated whose intake in our body along with food is harmful. The farmers do irrigate the crops for water and softening the soil for the growth of the roots of the plants. Similarly the use of the mud made pots for cooling the water in summer is century old and in village is highly beneficial. This is natural cooler and do not cause any disease. Its use must be popularized, as there is a shortage of the electricity to run the electric coolers. The water potential is getting momentum to generate electricity through dams i.e. Bhakhra Nangal, Ranapratap sagar etc. The thermodynamics in addition is playing a glaring role in the vehicular traffic, at road, air and waterways. The too much friction between the road and the outer surface of the wheels do cause heat and wastage of the energy at roads and more fuel is used to cop up this effect. Air-cooling is most useful for dissipating the heat from oil engines during work. There are some demerits of the thermodynamics as global warming, air pollution. But the wonderful aspect of the thermodynamics is to generate the electricity due the to temperature difference in water with depth of the oceans. This is called as OTEC i.e. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion as at the 4 to 8 feet deep water the temperature is lower (about 10 to 150C) while at upper surface is very high (about 350C). This temperature difference develops the temperature gradients, thus a machine made up of metallic pipes of 1 to 2 feet inner diameter is made in a square shape. Inside the pipes, at their each corner a turbine is fitted and a volatile gas like ammonia or propane is filled inside the pipes. It with temperature gradient runs from the high temperature to the lower. The gas on the way strikes the turbines where the latter are rotated and mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy with suitable electric circuits. The tactic of thermodynamics is applicable to human anger which is an adiabatic process. Thus the heat of the human is quickly dissipated, the anger of the person is cooled down and the person becomes normal. In 19th century, matter and energy have been complementary to each other and has fascinated Einstein for relativity theory that led him to make nuclear bomb which smashed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the important cities of Japan, in 1945. In history of human civilization this event was termed as second sun as it generated radiations equivalent to those of sun. Thus creation of heat can be defined as thermos means temperature and dynamics means motion to coin the word thermodynamics. There was a total devastation of life and matter at and around Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Similarly Chernobyl a Russian nuclear explosion in August 1986 destroyed the civilization. In year 1953, a smog accident at London killed thousands of people due to suffocation. An accident of release of a methyl isocyanides at Indian city Bhopal killed and affected thousands of the people. The above quoted incidents occurred due to the effects of the energy and inhalation of the poisonous gases. Living beings are highly vulnerable to extreme conditions because the origin of life has been emphasized as alignment and association of the nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), hydrogen (H2) gases and sulfur (S) together. Their combination form amino acids, proteins and others to compose life system. Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey, in year 1953, at the University of Chicago, conducted a historic experiment taking methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) gases and water (H2O) molecules in closed systems. For this experiment the thermodynamics played key role for supplying required energy to the individual gas molecules for chemical bond formation on combining. A passage of continuous electric current through the system simulated lightning storms believed to be common on the early earth, after a week, Miller observed 10-15% of the carbon in the form of organic compounds. 2% of the carbon had formed some of the amino acids and proteins, an essential to cellular life. Juan Oro, in 1961, prepared amino acids from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in an aqueous solution followed by nucleotide base like adenine. The adenine is of tremendous biological significance5 and is one of the four bases in RNA and DNA. It is also a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a major energy-releasing molecule in cells. These discoveries created a stir within the science community for solving a puzzle of origin of life within a few decades. The lighting storms are believed to be extremely common on primitive Earth which were not continuous as the Miller/Urey experiment portrayed. Again it reflects the mutual relationship among energy and matter. On September 28, 1969, a meteorite fell over Murchison, Australia while only 100 kilograms were recovered. An analysis of the meteorite found it rich with amino acids and over 90 amino acids were identified by researchers to date. Nineteen of these acids are found on Earth. The early Earth is believed to be similar to many of the asteroids and comets still roaming the galaxy. If amino acids are able to survive in outer space under extreme conditions then this infers presence of amino acids when the Earth was formed. New theories have recently been offered as alternative sites for the origin of life. An alignment and association of chemical gases conserve energy in the form of molecules, which sustain life, and Newton's observation about falling of apple from a tree to downward further emphasized a key position of energy. An evolution of civilization through various experimental realizations has proven a role of energy monitored by thermodynamic process. Similarly a human energy was utilized for construction of world famous and thousands years old Pyramid at Cairo, Egypt. The workers loaded heavy and bigger sized stones on wooden planks and did float on water of river Nile for transportation to the pyramid site. The energy has brought revolutionary changes in our civilization for example Chinese and Indian inks were prepared by burning the wood to convert it into the wooden coals which were converted into fine powder and mixed with mustard oils. Similarly Harrappa and Mohan Jodaro, a century old big buildings were constructed following lock and key concept based on the socket and cone joints of bones of elbow and knees of our body. At countryside for centuries grandmothers used to burn mustard oil with cotton wick through capillary action and collect its soot on neat and clean metallic surfaces especially on brass or iron and applied in eyes for adsorbing the secretion. During stone and metallic ages of our civilization, the stones were shaped up to the different designs to manifolds an impulse for hunting the prey. These forms conserve and liberate energy transforming from one form to another as burning of oil to soot. Egyptians understood thermodynamics in a better way, they knew pushing heavy wooden planks on water surface reduces frictional forces and minimum human energy was needed for transportations. The water potential was noticed centuries ago and dams were constructed at Mississippi and Niles to make water falls for rotating the turbine for energy to generate electricity and irrigational works. Paddling of cycle, letter typing machines, bull carts, churners for churning curd to whey, horse carts, swing machines, ships were operated manually. A best form of human energy conversion, the machine was run with human energy. In fact if we go deeper, the human energy harnessed from food is partly stored in muscles and was used for operating the machines. Similarly levers were developed which were very effective to economize the human energy for example the rollers were not pushed from back but were pulled forwards from front to minimize the human energy consumption. Thus these scientific developments were revolved around the energy conversion from one form to another and termed as thermodynamic by Joule Thompson, Carnot and Cannon Rumford in 18th countries. Since the thermodynamics has been an indispensable part of the human sciences and civilizations. Thus in ancient times the major cities were established at the banks of big rivers due to easier transportation and as sources of water for drinking, irrigation, cottage industries and transportation. In this context, river Nile in African countries is considered highly revered and is boon to Egypt, Sudan, Ghana, Ethiopia, Somalia and Nigeria etc. In India, rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sarswati etc. were taken in very high esteem and Delhi at bank Yamuna, Alhabad at trivani or pragraj, kolkata at Humbly, Mumbai, Madras at coastal areas, are situated. So the energy science understood as thermodynamics is essential to understand the human aspect. During British India various dams for energy production were constructed like Tungbhadra dam at Krishna-Cavery, Rihand, Hirakund, Nagarjun Sagar at Krishna River, Cauvery, Periyar, Ramagundam, Bhakra Nangal, and Salal project at Chenab River. Theses were eco-friendly techniques with no pollution hazards, the replacement of these techniques causing hazards. The replacement of cycle, bull cart and horse carts by engine run motors are emitting tone and tones of the CO, CO2, NO2 (NO, NO2, NO3) and SOx (SO2, SO3), the polluting gases causing global warming. The blunder, which the machines are doing, is that stamina of the human being is deteriorated. Boon: Farther the liberation of calories from food is well known and lays down the foundation of the traditional thermodynamics and establish the q = DE + PDV relation, a first law of thermodynamics. The q is heat, the DE energy liberated from food, P pressure and DV volume change when food is digested in the food canal of the body. Putting no volume and pressure change, the q = DE exists which decides the intake of food. A concept of eating jugglery after lunch and dinner for intake of iron and other useful vitamins is centaury old tradition in Indian society. By practice our ancestors carried forward this tradition generation to generation. The families who used to stick to the concept that as you eat so you reap leads to have sound mind in sound body. The traditions of wearing of types of clothes are monitored by the thermodynamics and illuminate the human side of science. Newton's observation of falling of apple from tree to down towards earth was based on potential energy due to height and the matter energy-relation fascinated Einstein to make nuclear bomb. Weather forecasting in itself is big traditional thermodynamics, where moistures and pressure gradient are basic parameters. In villages people still guess in advance about the rainfall by watching the movement of ants and certain birds. The ants very accurately sense the change in humidity and start taking out their eggs from their underground nests. Similarly the tailor birds start making nests at heighted trees. Thus the villager's gues that increases in humidity forecasts rainfall in coming days. During heating the milk boils out of the heating bowl while water does not. This is due to a layer formation of the fat of the milk on the upper surface during heating because of its low density. The layer thickens during heating and acts as cover to push back the milk vapors and kinetic energy of the milk molecules get accumulated and a state comes when the layer can not bear with the internal energy DE and suddenly bursts out with large amount of the milk. But water heating simply breaks its hydrogen bonds. Origin: James Watt, a naughty boy, in year 1750 noticed an experimental relevance of thermodynamics with uplifting of the lid of a kettle being used for boiling the water for cooking. Watt coined the word horsepower as horses powered water pumps in mines. It laid down the foundation of the railway engines, and in 1799, Humphry Davy melted ice by rubbing two ice cubs together. Latter in year 1824, Sadi Carnot and Cannon Ford, observed generation of heat when iron screw was used to make hole in the wooden logs. It was supported by count Rumford for boring cannon experiment in 18th and early 19th century. The handle of a screw was rotated manually putting mechanical energy to work. Partly it evolved heat during process, later on the ideas of Watt, Carnot and Ford laid down the foundation of the first law of thermodynamics as q = DE+PDV. The q denotes the heat contents, the DE internal energy and the PDV the mechanical work done by or on the system. It successfully converts mechanical energy into the electrical. Benjamin Thompson in 1790's, for measuring the power of light coined the word candlepower for candlelight as standard. Similarly James Joule in 1840's gave the Joule as standard unit for energy measurement, which is still in use. There are other glaring discoveries where our ancestors of human race developed the fire by rubbing the dried wooden logs that generates fire by friction. These were the developing grounds for the thermodynamics. Description: Truly the thermodynamics assist to achieve a best equilibrium among the pressure, temperatures, mass and energy. It is made of two words, the thermo that means temperature and the dynamics the motion. Its real meaning could be understood by considering several states of the water which are useful in society. At low temperature the liquid water is solid and referred to as ice while at optimum temperature is liquid state and at above 1000C, the gaseous form (vapor). Practically the vapor is used to generate electricity by rotating the turbine at thermal power stations for steam engines. The windmills for centuries were the most traditional power in villages for pumping out the water from the deep grounds. The air pressure for centuries is being used as a big potential by farmers to separate out the food grains from the straw of the wheat crops etc. The watermills were emerged in 18th centuries as a source of a natural power to rotate the turbine attached directly to the axle fitted with the grinding stones to grind the wheat, maize, gram and other food grains into flour. Few example like at higher altitude the pressure is low hence cooking of vegetables takes longer time and more fuel was consumed. The training area of the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering (NIM) Utterkashi is at very high altitudes, I personally observed that the cooking of rice or any food item takes longer time. In year 1996, I had experienced when undergone a month mountaineering course. In general, the ladies used to wet or dip the solid grains of grams, soyabeans, peas etc, and spices in fresh and clean water prior cooking. This process was well known by our forefathers and they were aware about the significance of thermodynamics. It was noted to be the most useful and time saving device and enriching the food, with softening the food nutrients. It saves lot of biogas or fuels energy. The table 1 depicts that the wet food grains take comparatively less time in cooking. Burning the fuel gas for less time saves the fuel and energy both. The gas burning for longer time for dried food grains costs much and is not economic. Table 1. Comparative cooking times for food grains. Food grains Amounts, g Time in min for dried Time in min for wet Grams 100 30 15 Soybeans 100 35 19 Mahoor dal 100 25 13 Rajma 100 33 18 The calorie of the 1g mol of the butane is -687.982 K calorie mol-1, and of methane -191.800 K calorie mpl-1. Thus the total time 123-65 = 58 min are saved and also a lot of gas and the time in kitchen for cooking. Natural events: Burning the fuel gases for smaller times saves energy, time and the gas. So a wetting concept of dried grains must be popularized in interest of the health and economic reasons. Another phenomenon like rain is a best example of the thermodynamics where the water vapors from south to North India from the oceans of the Hind and Arabian oceans, and from bay of the Bengal get transported to the North to fill the deficiency of the water moistures. This process is spontaneous or the natural one and is closely associated with the thermodynamics. The gallons and gallons of the water are being transported to North India through an open sky. Thus the thermodynamics of this phenomenon is a synonymy of each other. Similarly an evaporation of water moisture from the leaves of the trees, herbs and shrubs do add some moisture to the amount of the already water vapor. This process of the thermodynamics highlights the contributions of the trees. Thus the society must encourage tree plantation at each level to maintain the equilibrium and ecosystems. The learners can understand the meaning and worth of non-equilibrium system. A pressure gradient causes the energy gradient, which is calculated with equation1. DG = -2.303RT log K (1) The DG is free energy, and the K is equilibrium constant where K= p2/p1, the p1 water vapor pressure at southern India and the p2 at the northern and at northern the vapor pressure is lower than that of the southern. Thus the pressure moves from south to the north. This can be equated with the kinetics of the reactions where the reactants are decomposed with time and the rate of the reaction can be determined. The state is reached where the systems is equilibrated with respect to the concentration of the reactants. Similarly the rate constant K is represented as p1 at southern Û p2 at northern, and K = P2/P1. Thus the DG is free energy, which is the work, doing capacity of the environment due to pressure or moisture gradients within the framework of thermodynamic systems. This clarifies a concept of the Gibbs free energy, for example if the P1 = 1.5 bar and P2 = 1.0 bar, the log K = 0.17609 and the amount of DG = -1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1. This is the energy, which is being used to push up the water vapor to northern India. Thus the 1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1 is being used till the P1 = P2, at this condition the K=1 and the log K=0, it leads to have the DG=0. This predicts the movements of the water vapors are stabilized and the condensation is started in the form of the clouds with transition of the phase. The clouds after some time fall in the form of the rains. For farmers the thermodynamics has special significance for the crops when high-pressure difference is there the storms occur that distribute the seeds of the herbal plants and other useful trees. There are 4 seasons and the seed germination is temperature sensitive thus the wheat, maize, guar gum, pulses, oil seeds etc. are sown at the optimum temperature with some moisture contents. A quality control of oils could be made with Survismeter. The intelligent farmers generally dip the seed of the crops overnight before sowing them in the soil. It enhances the moisture contents in the seed, which help in quick and healthy germination of the seedling. This makes a better understanding of the thermodynamic applications in farming having several benefits to the society. The plants show much growth in rainy seasons due to water in plenty. The artificial thermodynamic conditions are being generated for growing of the seeds and flowering so that fresh fruits can be had at any seasons. For example at Tamil Naidu the mango plants give fruits in all seasons, as it is coastal area where almost same temperature prevails. Human thermodynamics, the sweating is very useful phenomenon and is closely related to the human body, due to sweating several harmful toxins come out of the body. Thus the living in air condition (AC) environment is harmful to the body because the toxins get accumulated in the body and accumulation in excess causes disease. Similarly the other way round is also beneficial for example in winter seasons the people rub their hands to generate heat due to friction, and expose minimum surface of their body to the environments to prevent dissipation of body heat. Currently due to the advancements, the thermodynamics is being defaced or deformed at domestic levels for example most of the ladies cook the food and for the time being store in freezes to prevent it from spoiling. It protects the food for time being but heating the eatable again and again before use is not good and destroys the calorie value. This makes overheating that must be avoided as in general, the overheating thermally decompose and denature the food items. Some of the valuable vitamins and other chemicals get lost in the heating process as vitamin C and iodine get vaporized and no more amounts is left in the food. An overheating of the milk loses the vitamin C, similarly at kitchen the ladies use oil for cooking the food. They dip the processed or the knitted flour of the food items in the hot oil. The used oil after cooking the food is stored and reused for further cooking. Thus the oil after heating several times gets saturated whose intake in our body along with food is harmful. The farmers do irrigate the crops for water and softening the soil for the growth of the roots of the plants. Similarly the use of the mud made pots for cooling the water in summer is century old and in village is highly beneficial. This is natural cooler and do not cause any disease. Its use must be popularized, as there is a shortage of the electricity to run the electric coolers. The water potential is getting momentum to generate electricity through dams i.e. Bhakhra Nangal, Ranapratap sagar etc. The thermodynamics in addition is playing a glaring role in the vehicular traffic, at road, air and waterways. The too much friction between the road and the outer surface of the wheels do cause heat and wastage of the energy at roads and more fuel is used to cop up this effect. Air-cooling is most useful for dissipating the heat from oil engines during work. There are some demerits of the thermodynamics as global warming, air pollution. But the wonderful aspect of the thermodynamics is to generate the electricity due the to temperature difference in water with depth of the oceans. This is called as OTEC i.e. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion as at the 4 to 8 feet deep water the temperature is lower (about 10 to 150C) while at upper surface is very high (about 350C). This temperature difference develops the temperature gradients, thus a machine made up of metallic pipes of 1 to 2 feet inner diameter is made in a square shape. Inside the pipes, at their each corner a turbine is fitted and a volatile gas like ammonia or propane is filled inside the pipes. It with temperature gradient runs from the high temperature to the lower. The gas on the way strikes the turbines where the latter are rotated and mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy with suitable electric circuits. The tactic of thermodynamics is applicable to human anger which is an adiabatic process. Thus the heat of the human is quickly dissipated, the anger of the person is cooled down and the person becomes normal. In 19th century, matter and energy have been complementary to each other and has fascinated Einstein for relativity theory that led him to make nuclear bomb which smashed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the important cities of Japan, in 1945. In history of human civilization this event was termed as second sun as it generated radiations equivalent to those of sun. Thus creation of heat can be defined as thermos means temperature and dynamics means motion to coin the word thermodynamics. There was a total devastation of life and matter at and around Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Similarly Chernobyl a Russian nuclear explosion in August 1986 destroyed the civilization. In year 1953, a smog accident at London killed thousands of people due to suffocation. An accident of release of a methyl isocyanides at Indian city Bhopal killed and affected thousands of the people. The above quoted incidents occurred due to the effects of the energy and inhalation of the poisonous gases. Living beings are highly vulnerable to extreme conditions because the origin of life has been emphasized as alignment and association of the nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), hydrogen (H2) gases and sulfur (S) together. Their combination form amino acids, proteins and others to compose life system. Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey, in year 1953, at the University of Chicago, conducted a historic experiment taking methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) gases and water (H2O) molecules in closed systems. For this experiment the thermodynamics played key role for supplying required energy to the individual gas molecules for chemical bond formation on combining. A passage of continuous electric current through the system simulated lightning storms believed to be common on the early earth, after a week, Miller observed 10-15% of the carbon in the form of organic compounds. 2% of the carbon had formed some of the amino acids and proteins, an essential to cellular life. Juan Oro, in 1961, prepared amino acids from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in an aqueous solution followed by nucleotide base like adenine. The adenine is of tremendous biological significance5 and is one of the four bases in RNA and DNA. It is also a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a major energy-releasing molecule in cells. These discoveries created a stir within the science community for solving a puzzle of origin of life within a few decades. The lighting storms are believed to be extremely common on primitive Earth which were not continuous as the Miller/Urey experiment portrayed. Again it reflects the mutual relationship among energy and matter. On September 28, 1969, a meteorite fell over Murchison, Australia while only 100 kilograms were recovered. An analysis of the meteorite found it rich with amino acids and over 90 amino acids were identified by researchers to date. Nineteen of these acids are found on Earth. The early Earth is believed to be similar to many of the asteroids and comets still roaming the galaxy. If amino acids are able to survive in outer space under extreme conditions then this infers presence of amino acids when the Earth was formed. New theories have recently been offered as alternative sites for the origin of life. An alignment and association of chemical gases conserve energy in the form of molecules, which sustain life, and Newton's observation about falling of apple from a tree to downward further emphasized a key position of energy. An evolution of civilization through various experimental realizations has proven a role of energy monitored by thermodynamic process. Similarly a human energy was utilized for construction of world famous and thousands years old Pyramid at Cairo, Egypt. The workers loaded heavy and bigger sized stones on wooden planks and did float on water of river Nile for transportation to the pyramid site. The energy has brought revolutionary changes in our civilization for example Chinese and Indian inks were prepared by burning the wood to convert it into the wooden coals which were converted into fine powder and mixed with mustard oils. Similarly Harrappa and Mohan Jodaro, a century old big buildings were constructed following lock and key concept based on the socket and cone joints of bones of elbow and knees of our body. At countryside for centuries grandmothers used to burn mustard oil with cotton wick through capillary action and collect its soot on neat and clean metallic surfaces especially on brass or iron and applied in eyes for adsorbing the secretion. During stone and metallic ages of our civilization, the stones were shaped up to the different designs to manifolds an impulse for hunting the prey. These forms conserve and liberate energy transforming from one form to another as burning of oil to soot. Egyptians understood thermodynamics in a better way, they knew pushing heavy wooden planks on water surface reduces frictional forces and minimum human energy was needed for transportations. The water potential was noticed centuries ago and dams were constructed at Mississippi and Niles to make water falls for rotating the turbine for energy to generate electricity and irrigational works. Paddling of cycle, letter typing machines, bull carts, churners for churning curd to whey, horse carts, swing machines, ships were operated manually. A best form of human energy conversion, the machine was run with human energy. In fact if we go deeper, the human energy harnessed from food is partly stored in muscles and was used for operating the machines. Similarly levers were developed which were very effective to economize the human energy for example the rollers were not pushed from back but were pulled forwards from front to minimize the human energy consumption. Thus these scientific developments were revolved around the energy conversion from one form to another and termed as thermodynamic by Joule Thompson, Carnot and Cannon Rumford in 18th countries. Since the thermodynamics has been an indispensable part of the human sciences and civilizations. Thus in ancient times the major cities were established at the banks of big rivers due to easier transportation and as sources of water for drinking, irrigation, cottage industries and transportation. In this context, river Nile in African countries is considered highly revered and is boon to Egypt, Sudan, Ghana, Ethiopia, Somalia and Nigeria etc. In India, rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sarswati etc. were taken in very high esteem and Delhi at bank Yamuna, Alhabad at trivani or pragraj, kolkata at Humbly, Mumbai, Madras at coastal areas, are situated. So the energy science understood as thermodynamics is essential to understand the human aspect. During British India various dams for energy production were constructed like Tungbhadra dam at Krishna-Cavery, Rihand, Hirakund, Nagarjun Sagar at Krishna River, Cauvery, Periyar, Ramagundam, Bhakra Nangal, and Salal project at Chenab River. Theses were eco-friendly techniques with no pollution hazards, the replacement of these techniques causing hazards. The replacement of cycle, bull cart and horse carts by engine run motors are emitting tone and tones of the CO, CO2, NO2 (NO, NO2, NO3) and SOx (SO2, SO3), the polluting gases causing global warming. The blunder, which the machines are doing, is that stamina of the human being is deteriorated. Boon: Farther the liberation of calories from food is well known and lays down the foundation of the traditional thermodynamics and establish the q = DE + PDV relation, a first law of thermodynamics. The q is heat, the DE energy liberated from food, P pressure and DV volume change when food is digested in the food canal of the body. Putting no volume and pressure change, the q = DE exists which decides the intake of food. A concept of eating jugglery after lunch and dinner for intake of iron and other useful vitamins is centaury old tradition in Indian society. By practice our ancestors carried forward this tradition generation to generation. The families who used to stick to the concept that as you eat so you reap leads to have sound mind in sound body. The traditions of wearing of types of clothes are monitored by the thermodynamics and illuminate the human side of science. Newton's observation of falling of apple from tree to down towards earth was based on potential energy due to height and the matter energy-relation fascinated Einstein to make nuclear bomb. Weather forecasting in itself is big traditional thermodynamics, where moistures and pressure gradient are basic parameters. In villages people still guess in advance about the rainfall by watching the movement of ants and certain birds. The ants very accurately sense the change in humidity and start taking out their eggs from their underground nests. Similarly the tailor birds start making nests at heighted trees. Thus the villager's gues that increases in humidity forecasts rainfall in coming days. During heating the milk boils out of the heating bowl while water does not. This is due to a layer formation of the fat of the milk on the upper surface during heating because of its low density. The layer thickens during heating and acts as cover to push back the milk vapors and kinetic energy of the milk molecules get accumulated and a state comes when the layer can not bear with the internal energy DE and suddenly bursts out with large amount of the milk. But water heating simply breaks its hydrogen bonds. Origin: James Watt, a naughty boy, in year 1750 noticed an experimental relevance of thermodynamics with uplifting of the lid of a kettle being used for boiling the water for cooking. Watt coined the word horsepower as horses powered water pumps in mines. It laid down the foundation of the railway engines, and in 1799, Humphry Davy melted ice by rubbing two ice cubs together. Latter in year 1824, Sadi Carnot and Cannon Ford, observed generation of heat when iron screw was used to make hole in the wooden logs. It was supported by count Rumford for boring cannon experiment in 18th and early 19th century. The handle of a screw was rotated manually putting mechanical energy to work. Partly it evolved heat during process, later on the ideas of Watt, Carnot and Ford laid down the foundation of the first law of thermodynamics as q = DE+PDV. The q denotes the heat contents, the DE internal energy and the PDV the mechanical work done by or on the system. It successfully converts mechanical energy into the electrical. Benjamin Thompson in 1790's, for measuring the power of light coined the word candlepower for candlelight as standard. Similarly James Joule in 1840's gave the Joule as standard unit for energy measurement, which is still in use. There are other glaring discoveries where our ancestors of human race developed the fire by rubbing the dried wooden logs that generates fire by friction. These were the developing grounds for the thermodynamics. Description: Truly the thermodynamics assist to achieve a best equilibrium among the pressure, temperatures, mass and energy. It is made of two words, the thermo that means temperature and the dynamics the motion. Its real meaning could be understood by considering several states of the water which are useful in society. At low temperature the liquid water is solid and referred to as ice while at optimum temperature is liquid state and at above 1000C, the gaseous form (vapor). Practically the vapor is used to generate electricity by rotating the turbine at thermal power stations for steam engines. The windmills for centuries were the most traditional power in villages for pumping out the water from the deep grounds. The air pressure for centuries is being used as a big potential by farmers to separate out the food grains from the straw of the wheat crops etc. The watermills were emerged in 18th centuries as a source of a natural power to rotate the turbine attached directly to the axle fitted with the grinding stones to grind the wheat, maize, gram and other food grains into flour. Few example like at higher altitude the pressure is low hence cooking of vegetables takes longer time and more fuel was consumed. The training area of the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering (NIM) Utterkashi is at very high altitudes, I personally observed that the cooking of rice or any food item takes longer time. In year 1996, I had experienced when undergone a month mountaineering course. In general, the ladies used to wet or dip the solid grains of grams, soyabeans, peas etc, and spices in fresh and clean water prior cooking. This process was well known by our forefathers and they were aware about the significance of thermodynamics. It was noted to be the most useful and time saving device and enriching the food, with softening the food nutrients. It saves lot of biogas or fuels energy. The wet food grains take comparatively less time in cooking. Burning the fuel gas for less time saves the fuel and energy both. The gas burning for longer time for dried food grains costs much and is not economic. The calorie of the 1g mol of the butane is -687.982 K calorie mol-1, and of methane -191.800 K calorie mpl-1. Thus the total time 123-65 = 58 min are saved and also a lot of gas and the time in kitchen for cooking. Natural events: Burning the fuel gases for smaller times saves energy, time and the gas. So a wetting concept of dried grains must be popularized in interest of the health and economic reasons. Another phenomenon like rain is a best example of the thermodynamics where the water vapors from south to North India from the oceans of the Hind and Arabian oceans, and from bay of the Bengal get transported to the North to fill the deficiency of the water moistures. This process is spontaneous or the natural one and is closely associated with the thermodynamics. The gallons and gallons of the water are being transported to North India through an open sky. Thus the thermodynamics of this phenomenon is a synonymy of each other. Similarly an evaporation of water moisture from the leaves of the trees, herbs and shrubs do add some moisture to the amount of the already water vapor. This process of the thermodynamics highlights the contributions of the trees. Thus the society must encourage tree plantation at each level to maintain the equilibrium and ecosystems. The learners can understand the meaning and worth of non-equilibrium system. A pressure gradient causes the energy gradient, which is calculated with equation1. DG = -2.303RT log K (1) The DG is free energy, and the K is equilibrium constant where K= p2/p1, the p1 water vapor pressure at southern India and the p2 at the northern and at northern the vapor pressure is lower than that of the southern. Thus the pressure moves from south to the north. This can be equated with the kinetics of the reactions where the reactants are decomposed with time and the rate of the reaction can be determined. The state is reached where the systems is equilibrated with respect to the concentration of the reactants. Similarly the rate constant K is represented as p1 at southern Û p2 at northern, and K = P2/P1. Thus the DG is free energy, which is the work, doing capacity of the environment due to pressure or moisture gradients within the framework of thermodynamic systems. This clarifies a concept of the Gibbs free energy, for example if the P1 = 1.5 bar and P2 = 1.0 bar, the log K = 0.17609 and the amount of DG = -1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1. This is the energy, which is being used to push up the water vapor to northern India. Thus the 1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1 is being used till the P1 = P2, at this condition the K=1 and the log K=0, it leads to have the DG=0. This predicts the movements of the water vapors are stabilized and the condensation is started in the form of the clouds with transition of the phase. The clouds after some time fall in the form of the rains. For farmers the thermodynamics has special significance for the crops when high-pressure difference is there the storms occur that distribute the seeds of the herbal plants and other useful trees. There are 4 seasons and the seed germination is temperature sensitive thus the wheat, maize, guar gum, pulses, oil seeds etc. are sown at the optimum temperature with some moisture contents. A quality control of oils could be made with Survismeter. The intelligent farmers generally dip the seed of the crops overnight before sowing them in the soil. It enhances the moisture contents in the seed, which help in quick and healthy germination of the seedling. This makes a better understanding of the thermodynamic applications in farming having several benefits to the society. The plants show much growth in rainy seasons due to water in plenty. The artificial thermodynamic conditions are being generated for growing of the seeds and flowering so that fresh fruits can be had at any seasons. For example at Tamil Naidu the mango plants give fruits in all seasons, as it is coastal area where almost same temperature prevails. Human thermodynamics, the sweating is very useful phenomenon and is closely related to the human body, due to sweating several harmful toxins come out of the body. Thus the living in air condition (AC) environment is harmful to the body because the toxins get accumulated in the body and accumulation in excess causes disease. Similarly the other way round is also beneficial for example in winter seasons the people rub their hands to generate heat due to friction, and expose minimum surface of their body to the environments to prevent dissipation of body heat. Currently due to the advancements, the thermodynamics is being defaced or deformed at domestic levels for example most of the ladies cook the food and for the time being store in freezes to prevent it from spoiling. It protects the food for time being but heating the eatable again and again before use is not good and destroys the calorie value. This makes overheating that must be avoided as in general, the overheating thermally decompose and denature the food items. Some of the valuable vitamins and other chemicals get lost in the heating process as vitamin C and iodine get vaporized and no more amounts is left in the food. An overheating of the milk loses the vitamin C, similarly at kitchen the ladies use oil for cooking the food. They dip the processed or the knitted flour of the food items in the hot oil. The used oil after cooking the food is stored and reused for further cooking. Thus the oil after heating several times gets saturated whose intake in our body along with food is harmful. The farmers do irrigate the crops for water and softening the soil for the growth of the roots of the plants. Similarly the use of the mud made pots for cooling the water in summer is century old and in village is highly beneficial. This is natural cooler and do not cause any disease. Its use must be popularized, as there is a shortage of the electricity to run the electric coolers. The water potential is getting momentum to generate electricity through dams i.e. Bhakhra Nangal, Ranapratap sagar etc. The thermodynamics in addition is playing a glaring role in the vehicular traffic, at road, air and waterways. The too much friction between the road and the outer surface of the wheels do cause heat and wastage of the energy at roads and more fuel is used to cop up this effect. Air-cooling is most useful for dissipating the heat from oil engines during work. There are some demerits of the thermodynamics as global warming, air pollution. But the wonderful aspect of the thermodynamics is to generate the electricity due the to temperature difference in water with depth of the oceans. This is called as OTEC i.e. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion as at the 4 to 8 feet deep water the temperature is lower (about 10 to 150C) while at upper surface is very high (about 350C). This temperature difference develops the temperature gradients, thus a machine made up of metallic pipes of 1 to 2 feet inner diameter is made in a square shape. Inside the pipes, at their each corner a turbine is fitted and a volatile gas like ammonia or propane is filled inside the pipes. It with temperature gradient runs from the high temperature to the lower. The gas on the way strikes the turbines where the latter are rotated and mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy with suitable electric circuits. The tactic of thermodynamics is applicable to human anger which is an adiabatic process. Thus the heat of the human is quickly dissipated, the anger of the person is cooled down and the person becomes normal. In 19th century, matter and energy have been complementary to each other and has fascinated Einstein for relativity theory that led him to make nuclear bomb which smashed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the important cities of Japan, in 1945. In history of human civilization this event was termed as second sun as it generated radiations equivalent to those of sun. Thus creation of heat can be defined as thermos means temperature and dynamics means motion to coin the word thermodynamics. There was a total devastation of life and matter at and around Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Similarly Chernobyl a Russian nuclear explosion in August 1986 destroyed the civilization. In year 1953, a smog accident at London killed thousands of people due to suffocation. An accident of release of a methyl isocyanides at Indian city Bhopal killed and affected thousands of the people. The above quoted incidents occurred due to the effects of the energy and inhalation of the poisonous gases. Living beings are highly vulnerable to extreme conditions because the origin of life has been emphasized as alignment and association of the nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), hydrogen (H2) gases and sulfur (S) together. Their combination form amino acids, proteins and others to compose life system. Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey, in year 1953, at the University of Chicago, conducted a historic experiment taking methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) gases and water (H2O) molecules in closed systems. For this experiment the thermodynamics played key role for supplying required energy to the individual gas molecules for chemical bond formation on combining. A passage of continuous electric current through the system simulated lightning storms believed to be common on the early earth, after a week, Miller observed 10-15% of the carbon in the form of organic compounds. 2% of the carbon had formed some of the amino acids and proteins, an essential to cellular life. Juan Oro, in 1961, prepared amino acids from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in an aqueous solution followed by nucleotide base like adenine. The adenine is of tremendous biological significance5 and is one of the four bases in RNA and DNA. It is also a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a major energy-releasing molecule in cells. These discoveries created a stir within the science community for solving a puzzle of origin of life within a few decades. The lighting storms are believed to be extremely common on primitive Earth which were not continuous as the Miller/Urey experiment portrayed. Again it reflects the mutual relationship among energy and matter. On September 28, 1969, a meteorite fell over Murchison, Australia while only 100 kilograms were recovered. An analysis of the meteorite found it rich with amino acids and over 90 amino acids were identified by researchers to date. Nineteen of these acids are found on Earth. The early Earth is believed to be similar to many of the asteroids and comets still roaming the galaxy. If amino acids are able to survive in outer space under extreme conditions then this infers presence of amino acids when the Earth was formed. New theories have recently been offered as alternative sites for the origin of life. An alignment and association of chemical gases conserve energy in the form of molecules, which sustain life, and Newton's observation about falling of apple from a tree to downward further emphasized a key position of energy. An evolution of civilization through various experimental realizations has proven a role of energy monitored by thermodynamic process. Similarly a human energy was utilized for construction of world famous and thousands years old Pyramid at Cairo, Egypt. The workers loaded heavy and bigger sized stones on wooden planks and did float on water of river Nile for transportation to the pyramid site. The energy has brought revolutionary changes in our civilization for example Chinese and Indian inks were prepared by burning the wood to convert it into the wooden coals which were converted into fine powder and mixed with mustard oils. Similarly Harrappa and Mohan Jodaro, a century old big buildings were constructed following lock and key concept based on the socket and cone joints of bones of elbow and knees of our body. At countryside for centuries grandmothers used to burn mustard oil with cotton wick through capillary action and collect its soot on neat and clean metallic surfaces especially on brass or iron and applied in eyes for adsorbing the secretion. During stone and metallic ages of our civilization, the stones were shaped up to the different designs to manifolds an impulse for hunting the prey. These forms conserve and liberate energy transforming from one form to another as burning of oil to soot. Egyptians understood thermodynamics in a better way, they knew pushing heavy wooden planks on water surface reduces frictional forces and minimum human energy was needed for transportations. The water potential was noticed centuries ago and dams were constructed at Mississippi and Niles to make water falls for rotating the turbine for energy to generate electricity and irrigational works. Paddling of cycle, letter typing machines, bull carts, churners for churning curd to whey, horse carts, swing machines, ships were operated manually. A best form of human energy conversion, the machine was run with human energy. In fact if we go deeper, the human energy harnessed from food is partly stored in muscles and was used for operating the machines. Similarly levers were developed which were very effective to economize the human energy for example the rollers were not pushed from back but were pulled forwards from front to minimize the human energy consumption. Thus these scientific developments were revolved around the energy conversion from one form to another and termed as thermodynamic by Joule Thompson, Carnot and Cannon Rumford in 18th countries. Since the thermodynamics has been an indispensable part of the human sciences and civilizations. Thus in ancient times the major cities were established at the banks of big rivers due to easier transportation and as sources of water for drinking, irrigation, cottage industries and transportation. In this context, river Nile in African countries is considered highly revered and is boon to Egypt, Sudan, Ghana, Ethiopia, Somalia and Nigeria etc. In India, rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sarswati etc. were taken in very high esteem and Delhi at bank Yamuna, Alhabad at trivani or pragraj, kolkata at Humbly, Mumbai, Madras at coastal areas, are situated. So the energy science understood as thermodynamics is essential to understand the human aspect. During British India various dams for energy production were constructed like Tungbhadra dam at Krishna-Cavery, Rihand, Hirakund, Nagarjun Sagar at Krishna River, Cauvery, Periyar, Ramagundam, Bhakra Nangal, and Salal project at Chenab River. Theses were eco-friendly techniques with no pollution hazards, the replacement of these techniques causing hazards. The replacement of cycle, bull cart and horse carts by engine run motors are emitting tone and tones of the CO, CO2, NO2 (NO, NO2, NO3) and SOx (SO2, SO3), the polluting gases causing global warming. The blunder, which the machines are doing, is that stamina of the human being is deteriorated. Thermodynamics a boon: Farther the liberation of calories from food is well known and lays down the foundation of the traditional thermodynamics and establish the q = DE + PDV relation, a first law of thermodynamics. The q is heat, the DE energy liberated from food, P pressure and DV volume change when food is digested in the food canal of the body. Putting no volume and pressure change, the q = DE exists which decides the intake of food. A concept of eating jugglery after lunch and dinner for intake of iron and other useful vitamins is centaury old tradition in Indian society. By practice our ancestors carried forward this tradition generation to generation. The families who used to stick to the concept that as you eat so you reap leads to have sound mind in sound body. The traditions of wearing of types of clothes are monitored by the thermodynamics and illuminate the human side of science. Newton's observation of falling of apple from tree to down towards earth was based on potential energy due to height and the matter energy-relation fascinated Einstein to make nuclear bomb. Weather forecasting in itself is big traditional thermodynamics, where moistures and pressure gradient are basic parameters. In villages people still guess in advance about the rainfall by watching the movement of ants and certain birds. The ants very accurately sense the change in humidity and start taking out their eggs from their underground nests. Similarly the tailor birds start making nests at heighted trees. Thus the villager's gues that increases in humidity forecasts rainfall in coming days. During heating the milk boils out of the heating bowl while water does not. This is due to a layer formation of the fat of the milk on the upper surface during heating because of its low density. The layer thickens during heating and acts as cover to push back the milk vapors and kinetic energy of the milk molecules get accumulated and a state comes when the layer can not bear with the internal energy DE and suddenly bursts out with large amount of the milk. But water heating simply breaks its hydrogen bonds. Origin: James Watt, a naughty boy, in year 1750 noticed an experimental relevance of thermodynamics with uplifting of the lid of a kettle being used for boiling the water for cooking. Watt coined the word horsepower as horses powered water pumps in mines. It laid down the foundation of the railway engines, and in 1799, Humphry Davy melted ice by rubbing two ice cubs together. Latter in year 1824, Sadi Carnot and Cannon Ford, observed generation of heat when iron screw was used to make hole in the wooden logs. It was supported by count Rumford for boring cannon experiment in 18th and early 19th century. The handle of a screw was rotated manually putting mechanical energy to work. Partly it evolved heat during process, later on the ideas of Watt, Carnot and Ford laid down the foundation of the first law of thermodynamics as q = DE+PDV. The q denotes the heat contents, the DE internal energy and the PDV the mechanical work done by or on the system. It successfully converts mechanical energy into the electrical. Benjamin Thompson in 1790's, for measuring the power of light coined the word candlepower for candlelight as standard. Similarly James Joule in 1840's gave the Joule as standard unit for energy measurement, which is still in use. There are other glaring discoveries where our ancestors of human race developed the fire by rubbing the dried wooden logs that generates fire by friction. These were the developing grounds for the thermodynamics. Description: Truly the thermodynamics assist to achieve a best equilibrium among the pressure, temperatures, mass and energy. It is made of two words, the thermo that means temperature and the dynamics the motion. Its real meaning could be understood by considering several states of the water which are useful in society. At low temperature the liquid water is solid and referred to as ice while at optimum temperature is liquid state and at above 1000C, the gaseous form (vapor). Practically the vapor is used to generate electricity by rotating the turbine at thermal power stations for steam engines. The windmills for centuries were the most traditional power in villages for pumping out the water from the deep grounds. The air pressure for centuries is being used as a big potential by farmers to separate out the food grains from the straw of the wheat crops etc. The watermills were emerged in 18th centuries as a source of a natural power to rotate the turbine attached directly to the axle fitted with the grinding stones to grind the wheat, maize, gram and other food grains into flour. Few example like at higher altitude the pressure is low hence cooking of vegetables takes longer time and more fuel was consumed. The training area of the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering (NIM) Utterkashi is at very high altitudes, I personally observed that the cooking of rice or any food item takes longer time. In year 1996, I had experienced when undergone a month mountaineering course. In general, the ladies used to wet or dip the solid grains of grams, soyabeans, peas etc, and spices in fresh and clean water prior cooking. This process was well known by our forefathers and they were aware about the significance of thermodynamics. It was noted to be the most useful and time saving device and enriching the food, with softening the food nutrients. It saves lot of biogas or fuels energy. The table 1 depicts that the wet food grains take comparatively less time in cooking. Burning the fuel gas for less time saves the fuel and energy both. The gas burning for longer time for dried food grains costs much and is not economic. The calorie of the 1g mol of the butane is -687.982 K calorie mol-1, and of methane -191.800 K calorie mpl-1. Thus the total time 123-65 = 58 min are saved and also a lot of gas and the time in kitchen for cooking. Natural events: Burning the fuel gases for smaller times saves energy, time and the gas. So a wetting concept of dried grains must be popularized in interest of the health and economic reasons. Another phenomenon like rain is a best example of the thermodynamics where the water vapors from south to North India from the oceans of the Hind and Arabian oceans, and from bay of the Bengal get transported to the North to fill the deficiency of the water moistures. This process is spontaneous or the natural one and is closely associated with the thermodynamics. The gallons and gallons of the water are being transported to North India through an open sky. Thus the thermodynamics of this phenomenon is a synonymy of each other. Similarly an evaporation of water moisture from the leaves of the trees, herbs and shrubs do add some moisture to the amount of the already water vapor. This process of the thermodynamics highlights the contributions of the trees. Thus the society must encourage tree plantation at each level to maintain the equilibrium and ecosystems. The learners can understand the meaning and worth of non-equilibrium system. A pressure gradient causes the energy gradient, which is calculated with equation1. DG = -2.303RT log K (1) The DG is free energy, and the K is equilibrium constant where K= p2/p1, the p1 water vapor pressure at southern India and the p2 at the northern and at northern the vapor pressure is lower than that of the southern. Thus the pressure moves from south to the north. This can be equated with the kinetics of the reactions where the reactants are decomposed with time and the rate of the reaction can be determined. The state is reached where the systems is equilibrated with respect to the concentration of the reactants. Similarly the rate constant K is represented as p1 at southern Û p2 at northern, and K = P2/P1. Thus the DG is free energy, which is the work, doing capacity of the environment due to pressure or moisture gradients within the framework of thermodynamic systems. This clarifies a concept of the Gibbs free energy, for example if the P1 = 1.5 bar and P2 = 1.0 bar, the log K = 0.17609 and the amount of DG = -1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1. This is the energy, which is being used to push up the water vapor to northern India. Thus the 1005.221 Joule mol-1kelvin-1 is being used till the P1 = P2, at this condition the K=1 and the log K=0, it leads to have the DG=0. This predicts the movements of the water vapors are stabilized and the condensation is started in the form of the clouds with transition of the phase. The clouds after some time fall in the form of the rains. For farmers the thermodynamics has special significance for the crops when high-pressure difference is there the storms occur that distribute the seeds of the herbal plants and other useful trees. There are 4 seasons and the seed germination is temperature sensitive thus the wheat, maize, guar gum, pulses, oil seeds etc. are sown at the optimum temperature with some moisture contents. A quality control of oils could be made with Survismeter. The intelligent farmers generally dip the seed of the crops overnight before sowing them in the soil. It enhances the moisture contents in the seed, which help in quick and healthy germination of the seedling. This makes a better understanding of the thermodynamic applications in farming having several benefits to the society. The plants show much growth in rainy seasons due to water in plenty. The artificial thermodynamic conditions are being generated for growing of the seeds and flowering so that fresh fruits can be had at any seasons. For example at Tamil Naidu the mango plants give fruits in all seasons, as it is coastal area where almost same temperature prevails. Human thermodynamics, the sweating is very useful phenomenon and is closely related to the human body, due to sweating several harmful toxins come out of the body. Thus the living in air condition (AC) environment is harmful to the body because the toxins get accumulated in the body and accumulation in excess causes disease. Similarly the other way round is also beneficial for example in winter seasons the people rub their hands to generate heat due to friction, and expose minimum surface of their body to the environments to prevent dissipation of body heat. Currently due to the advancements, the thermodynamics is being defaced or deformed at domestic levels for example most of the ladies cook the food and for the time being store in freezes to prevent it from spoiling. It protects the food for time being but heating the eatable again and again before use is not good and destroys the calorie value. This makes overheating that must be avoided as in general, the overheating thermally decompose and denature the food items. Some of the valuable vitamins and other chemicals get lost in the heating process as vitamin C and iodine get vaporized and no more amounts is left in the food. An overheating of the milk loses the vitamin C, similarly at kitchen the ladies use oil for cooking the food. They dip the processed or the knitted flour of the food items in the hot oil. The used oil after cooking the food is stored and reused for further cooking. Thus the oil after heating several times gets saturated whose intake in our body along with food is harmful. The farmers do irrigate the crops for water and softening the soil for the growth of the roots of the plants. Similarly the use of the mud made pots for cooling the water in summer is century old and in village is highly beneficial. This is natural cooler and do not cause any disease. Its use must be popularized, as there is a shortage of the electricity to run the electric coolers. The water potential is getting momentum to generate electricity through dams i.e. Bhakhra Nangal, Ranapratap sagar etc. The thermodynamics in addition is playing a glaring role in the vehicular traffic, at road, air and waterways. The too much friction between the road and the outer surface of the wheels do cause heat and wastage of the energy at roads and more fuel is used to cop up this effect. Air-cooling is most useful for dissipating the heat from oil engines during work. There are some demerits of the thermodynamics as global warming, air pollution. But the wonderful aspect of the thermodynamics is to generate the electricity due the to temperature difference in water with depth of the oceans. This is called as OTEC i.e. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion as at the 4 to 8 feet deep water the temperature is lower (about 10 to 150C) while at upper surface is very high (about 350C). This temperature difference develops the temperature gradients, thus a machine made up of metallic pipes of 1 to 2 feet inner diameter is made in a square shape. Inside the pipes, at their each corner a turbine is fitted and a volatile gas like ammonia or propane is filled inside the pipes. It with temperature gradient runs from the high temperature to the lower. The gas on the way strikes the turbines where the latter are rotated and mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy with suitable electric circuits. The tactic of thermodynamics is applicable to human anger which is an adiabatic process. Thus the heat of the human is quickly dissipated, the anger of the person is cooled down and the person becomes normal.

What wars were George washing ton in?

Born in Westmoreland County, Va., on Feb. 22, 1732, George Washington was the eldest son of Augustine Washington and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington, who were prosperous Virginia gentry of English descent. George spent his early years on the family estate on Pope's Creek along the Potomac River. His early education included the study of such subjects as mathematics, surveying, the classics, and "rules of civility." His father died in 1743, and soon thereafter George went to live with his half brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon, Lawrence's plantation on the Potomac. Lawrence, who became something of a substitute father for his brother, had married into the Fairfax family, prominent and influential Virginians who helped launch George's career. An early ambition to go to sea had been effectively discouraged by George's mother; instead, he turned to surveying, securing (1748) an appointment to survey Lord Fairfax's lands in the Shenandoah Valley. He helped lay out the Virginia town of Belhaven (now Alexandria) in 1749 and was appointed surveyor for Culpeper County. George accompanied his brother to Barbados in an effort to cure Lawrence of tuberculosis, but Lawrence died in 1752, soon after the brothers returned. George ultimately inherited the Mount Vernon estate.By 1753 the growing rivalry between the British and French over control of the Ohio Valley, soon to erupt into the French and Indian War (1754-63), created new opportunities for the ambitious young Washington. He first gained public notice when, as adjutant of one of Virginia's four military districts, he was dispatched (October 1753) by Gov. Robert Dinwiddie on a fruitless mission to warn the French commander at Fort Le Boeuf against further encroachment on territory claimed by Britain. Washington's diary account of the dangers and difficulties of his journey, published at Williamsburg on his return, may have helped win him his ensuing promotion to lieutenant colonel. Although only 22 years of age and lacking experience, he learned quickly, meeting the problems of recruitment, supply, and desertions with a combination of brashness and native ability that earned him the respect of his superiors.French and Indian War.In April 1754, on his way to establish a post at the Forks of the Ohio (the current site of Pittsburgh), Washington learned that the French had already erected a fort there. Warned that the French were advancing, he quickly threw up fortifications at Great Meadows, Pa., aptly naming the entrenchment Fort Necessity, and marched to intercept advancing French troops. In the resulting skirmish the French commander the sieur de Jumonville was killed and most of his men were captured. Washington pulled his small force back into Fort Necessity where he was overwhelmed (July 3) by the French in an all-day battle fought in a drenching rain. Surrounded by enemy troops, with his food supply almost exhausted and his dampened ammunition useless, Washington capitulated. Under the terms of the surrender signed that day, he was permitted to march his troops back to Williamsburg. Discouraged by his defeat and angered by discrimination between British and colonial officers in rank and pay, he resigned his commission near the end of 1754. The next year, however, he volunteered to join British general Edward Braddock's expedition against the French. When Braddock was ambushed by the French and their Indian allies on the Monongahela River, Washington, although seriously ill, tried to rally the Virginia troops. Whatever public criticism attended the debacle, Washington's own military reputation was enhanced, and in 1755, at the age of 23, he was promoted to colonel and appointed commander in chief of the Virginia militia, with responsibility for defending the frontier. In 1758 he took an active part in Gen. John Forbes's successful campaign against Fort Duquesne. From his correspondence during these years, Washington can be seen evolving from a brash, vain, and opinionated young officer, impatient with restraints and given to writing admonitory letters to his superiors, to a mature soldier with a grasp of administration and a firm understanding of how to deal effectively with civil authority.Virginia Politician.Assured that the Virginia frontier was safe from French attack, Washington left the army in 1758 and returned to Mount Vernon, directing his attention toward restoring his neglected estate. He erected new buildings, refurnished the house, and experimented with new crops. With the support of an ever-growing circle of influential friends, he entered politics, serving (1759-74) in Virginia's House of Burgesses. In January 1759 he married Martha Dandridge Custis, a wealthy and attractive young widow with two small children. It was to be a happy and satisfying marriage. After 1769, Washington became a leader in Virginia's opposition to Great Britain's colonial policies. At first he hoped for reconciliation with Britain, although some British policies had touched him personally. Discrimination against colonial military officers had rankled deeply, and British land policies and restrictions on western expansion after 1763 had seriously hindered his plans for western land speculation. In addition, he shared the usual planter's dilemma in being continually in debt to his London agents. As a delegate (1774-75) to the First and Second Continental Congress, Washington did not participate actively in the deliberations, but his presence was undoubtedly a stabilizing influence. In June 1775 he was Congress's unanimous choice as commander in chief of the Continental forces. American Revolution.Washington took command of the troops surrounding British-occupied Boston on July 3, devoting the next few months to training the undisciplined 14,000-man army and trying to secure urgently needed powder and other supplies. Early in March 1776, using cannon brought down from Ticonderoga by Henry Knox, Washington occupied Dorchester Heights, effectively commanding the city and forcing the British to evacuate on March 17. He then moved to defend New York City against the combined land and sea forces of Sir William Howe. In New York he committed a military blunder by occupying an untenable position in Brooklyn, although he saved his army by skillfully retreating from Manhattan into Westchester County and through New Jersey into Pennsylvania. In the last months of 1776, desperately short of men and supplies, Washington almost despaired. He had lost New York City to the British; enlistment was almost up for a number of the troops, and others were deserting in droves; civilian morale was falling rapidly; and Congress, faced with the possibility of a British attack on Philadelphia, had withdrawn from the city. Colonial morale was briefly revived by the capture of Trenton, N.J., a brilliantly conceived attack in which Washington crossed the Delaware River on Christmas night 1776 and surprised the predominantly Hessian garrison. Advancing to Princeton, N.J., he routed the British there on Jan. 3, 1777, but in September and October 1777 he suffered serious reverses in Pennsylvania--at Brandywine and Germantown. The major success of that year--the defeat (October 1777) of the British at Saratoga, N.Y.--had belonged not to Washington but to Benedict Arnold and Horatio Gates. The contrast between Washington's record and Gates's brilliant victory was one factor that led to the so-called Conway Cabal--an intrigue by some members of Congress and army officers to replace Washington with a more successful commander, probably Gates. Washington acted quickly, and the plan eventually collapsed due to lack of public support as well as to Washington's overall superiority to his rivals. After holding his bedraggled and dispirited army together during the difficult winter at Valley Forge, Washington learned that France had recognized American independence. With the aid of the Prussian Baron von Steuben and the French marquis de LaFayette, he concentrated on turning the army into a viable fighting force, and by spring he was ready to take the field again. In June 1778 he attacked the British near Monmouth Courthouse, N.J., on their withdrawal from Philadelphia to New York. Although American general Charles Lee's lack of enterprise ruined Washington's plan to strike a major blow at Sir Henry Clinton's army at Monmouth, the commander in chief's quick action on the field prevented an American defeat.In 1780 the main theater of the war shifted to the south. Although the campaigns in Virginia and the Carolinas were conducted by other generals, including Nathanael Greene and Daniel Morgan, Washington was still responsible for the overall direction of the war. After the arrival of the French army in 1780 he concentrated on coordinating allied efforts and in 1781 launched, in cooperation with the comte de Rochambeau and the comte d'Estaing, the brilliantly planned and executed Yorktown Campaign against Charles Cornwallis, securing (Oct. 19, 1781) the American victory.Washington had grown enormously in stature during the war. A man of unquestioned integrity, he began by accepting the advice of more experienced officers such as Gates and Charles Lee, but he quickly learned to trust his own judgment. He sometimes railed at Congress for its failure to supply troops and for the bungling fiscal measures that frustrated his efforts to secure adequate materiel. Gradually, however, he developed what was perhaps his greatest strength in a society suspicious of the military--his ability to deal effectively with civil authority. Whatever his private opinions, his relations with Congress and with the state governments were exemplary--despite the fact that his wartime powers sometimes amounted to dictatorial authority. On the battlefield Washington relied on a policy of trial and error, eventually becoming a master of improvisation. Often accused of being overly cautious, he could be bold when success seemed possible. He learned to use the short-term militia skillfully and to combine green troops with veterans to produce an efficient fighting force.After the war Washington returned to Mount Vernon, which had declined in his absence. Although he became president of the Society of the Cincinnati, an organization of former Revolutionary War officers, he avoided involvement in Virginia politics. Preferring to concentrate on restoring Mount Vernon, he added a greenhouse, a mill, an icehouse, and new land to the estate. He experimented with crop rotation, bred hunting dogs and horses, investigated the development of Potomac River navigation, undertook various commercial ventures, and traveled (1784) west to examine his land holdings near the Ohio River. His diary notes a steady stream of visitors, native and foreign; Mount Vernon, like its owner, had already become a national institution.In May 1787, Washington headed the Virginia delegation to the Constitutional Convension in Philadelphia and was unanimously elected presiding officer. His presence lent prestige to the proceedings, and although he made few direct contributions, he generally supported the advocates of a strong central government. After the new Constitution was submitted to the states for ratification and became legally operative, he was unanimously elected president (1789).The PresidencyTaking office (Apr. 30, 1789) in New York City, Washington acted carefully and deliberately, aware of the need to build an executive structure that could accommodate future presidents. Hoping to prevent sectionalism from dividing the new nation, he toured the New England states (1789) and the South (1791). An able administrator, he nevertheless failed to heal the widening breach between factions led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Because he supported many of Hamilton's controversial fiscal policies--the assumption of state debts, the Bank of the United States, and the excise tax--Washington became the target of attacks by Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans. Washington was reelected president in 1792, and the following year the most divisive crisis arising out of the personal and political conflicts within his cabinet occurred--over the issue of American neutrality during the war between England and France. Washington, whose policy of neutrality angered the pro-French Jeffersonians, was horrified by the excesses of the French Revolution and enraged by the tactics of Edmond Genet, the French minister in the United States, which amounted to foreign interference in American politics. Further, with an eye toward developing closer commercial ties with the British, the president agreed with the Hamiltonians on the need for peace with Great Britain. His acceptance of the 1794 Jay's Treaty, which settled outstanding differences between the United States and Britain but which Democratic-Republicans viewed as an abject surrender to British demands, revived vituperation against the president, as did his vigorous upholding of the excise law during the WHISKEY REBELLION in western Pennsylvania.Retirement and AssessmentBy March 1797, when Washington left office, the country's financial system was well established; the Indian threat east of the Mississippi had been largely eliminated; and Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty (1795) with Spain had enlarged U.S. territory and removed serious diplomatic difficulties. In spite of the animosities and conflicting opinions between Democratic-Republicans and members of the Hamiltonian Federalist party, the two groups were at least united in acceptance of the new federal government. Washington refused to run for a third term and, after a masterly Farewell Address in which he warned the United States against permanent alliances abroad, he went home to Mount Vernon. He was succeeded by his vice-president, Federalist John Adams. Although Washington reluctantly accepted command of the army in 1798 when war with France seemed imminent, he did not assume an active role. He preferred to spend his last years in happy retirement at Mount Vernon. In mid-December, Washington contracted what was probably quinsy or acute laryngitis; he declined rapidly and died at his estate on Dec. 14, 1799.Even during his lifetime, Washington loomed large in the national imagination. His role as a symbol of American virtue was enhanced after his death by Mason L. Weems, in an edition of whose Life and Memorable Actions of George Washington (c.1800) first appeared such legends as the story about the cherry tree. Later biographers of note included Washington Irving (5 vols., 1855-59) and Woodrow Wilson (1896). Washington's own works have been published in various editions, including The Diaries of George Washington, edited by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig (6 vols., 1976-79), and The Writings of George Washington, 1745-1799, edited by John C. FitzpatrickHe was in the Rev and independance

What did Einstein consider was the greatest blunder of his career and how did it impact his work in theoretical physics?

What else can I help you with?

How much work will it take to a lift a 2-kg pair of hiking boots 2 meters off the ground and onto a shelf in your closet?

How much work will it take to lift a 2 kg pair of hiking boots 2 meters off the ground and onto a shelf in your closet?

What is a fulcrum of the debate?

Contribution of thermodynamics to society?

What wars were George washing ton in?

What is Einstein worst blunder?

Einstein used the cosmological constant in his general relativity equations to do what?

Was the big bang theory Einstein's theory?

What is the future tense for blunder?

When was a scientist wrong?

What is a sentence for blunder?

What are some sentences using the word blunder?

Can you have a good sentence for blunder?

When was Blunder Boys created?

When was Inspector Blunder created?

What is the static university theory and what did Einstein believe that that was impossible?

What is the duration of Mabel's Blunder?

Resources

Top Categories

Product

Company