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What else can I help you with?
What are the major parts of the cerebrum?
ventricles, cerebellum,cavum ceptum pellucidum, choroid plexus.
How many heart chambers are in a lizard and which are the pumping chambers?
There are technically 3 chambers-- 2 atria and a ventricle-- but the ventricle is partially divided into 3 chambers the Cavum Arteriosum, Cavum Venosum, and Cavum Pulmonale. The ventricle is the pumping chamber.
What are the names of cavity with in a bone?
antrum - a natural cavity or hollow in a bone bodily cavity, cavum, cavity - (anatomy) a natural hollow or sinus within the body
What is the function of the cavity?
A pulp cavity is the central cavity of a tooth containing the pulp (including the root canal) tooth - hard bone like structures in the jaws of vertebrates; used for biting and chewing or for attack and defense. bodily cavity, cavum, cavity - (anatomy) a natural hollow or sinus within the body. root canal - the passage in the root of a tooth through which its nerve and blood vessels enter the pulp cavity
What are the symptoms of a person who is affected by Miller-Dieker syndrome?
The list of signs and symptoms mentioned in various sources for Miller-Dieker syndrome includes the 37 symptoms listed below: * Failure to thrive * Feeding problems * Limited developmental skills * Incomplete brain development * Smooth brain surface * Pachygyria * Heterotopias * Failure of opercula to develop * Absent corpus callosum * Hypoplastic corpus callosum * Large cavum septi pellucidi * Severe mental deficiency * Reduced muscle tone * Opisthotonos * Spasticity * Failure to thrive * Seizures * Hypsarrhythmia * Small head * Bitemporal narrowing * High forehead * Central forehead ridging * Central forehead furrowing * Small nose * Anteverted nostrils * Up-slant to palpebral fissures * Protuberant upper lip * Small lower jaw * Low-set auricles * Posteriorly angulated auricles * Wide secondary alveolar ridge * Late eruption of primary teeth * Undescended testes * Pilonidal sinus * Fifth finger clinodactyly * Transverse palmar crease * Polyhydramnios Note that Miller-Dieker syndrome symptoms usually refers to various symptoms known to a patient, but the phrase Miller-Dieker syndrome signs may refer to those signs only noticable by a doctor.
What is the latin name for the human body parts?
Abdomen, Achilles tendo, Alveoli, tarso Anus, arteriae maiori,, brachium ala, Arteriae B- Spina Romani, Bellybutton, Venter, biceps, Sanguis, CORPUS, ossa, Boobies, cerebrum, Pectus, bronchiales-fistulam NATIS C- Vitulum, vasorum capillarium, Carpal osse, Carpi, cartilago, sinus Cells, cerebelli, Cerebrum, maxillam, Archa Cromosomatum, Collarem-osse, cornee, Cranium D- Deltoideis, Dermis, PRAECORDIUM-musculus, Discus, DNA, ductusaccessorius E- Auricilla, aures, Cubitus, epidermis, oculi siti, superciliis Eyelash, Eyes F- Faciem, Pedum: ossis femoris, fibulae, dígitus, brachij INDEX, Forelimb G- Genitalibus, Glandulae, Gluteus Maximus, inguine H- Coma, manibus, caput, cor, calcem, hip, Hormones humanum I- Immune ratio, Index-digito, intestino, Iris J- Maxilla, Consocer, MALA, iugularis vena K- Renes, genu, articulis L- Purgamentum, Leg, Leukocyte, vinculum, fracturam, Limbic ratio, Lips, parum-digito, Hepate, lumbalis, pulmones, lymphonodorum M- LACTEOLUS, mandibulae, medulla, mediale Plantar neruo, Medulla oblongata, Meniscus, Metacarpal, Metacarpus, metatarsi, medium-digito, Medius ANTEPENDIUM Gyrus; Mens MAXILLARIS, os, Musculos, Musculocutaneous FORTITUDO N- Umbilicum, qud Jugum, neruo, Nodule, nasus, Nucleus O- Occipitalis lobus, Opisthenar, Organ, Ovarium P- Palatum, Palm, pelvis, penem, Phalanges, Pinkie, pituitam glandulae Posteriorum Q- quadriceps R- Tergo finem, Rectum, Retina, costae, Ring-digito, RNA S- Septum, Humeros, Osseus, MONOGRAMMUS: Pellem, Calvariae CAVUM poplitibus mani, sterni, stomacho T- Talus osse, lacrimae ductusaccessorius, dentibus, NERVUS, testes, femur, gutture, Thumb, tibiam, TEXTUM, Digitis lingua mendax, Torso, Posterior, tubulis U- Cubito, et urethra, uvae V- Naturale eius debent venas, uasis humore vitreo, Vocalis spinalis, Vomer, vuluae W- Lumbos, Niveus corpusculum, Niveus TEXTUS vulva aut rugae, carpi X- Punico malo, X-Homo, X-macula Y- Yapper, Yellow-medullarum, Y-Homo Z- Zits Zygomatic os
What is shizophrenia?
Diagnostic Features This disorder, at some point in the illness, involves a psychotic phase (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). This psychotic phase must last for at least one month (or less if successfully treated). Schizophrenia also causes impairment in social or vocational functioning which must last for at least 6 months. The psychotic phase is not due to a medical condition, medication, or illegal drug. Complications Individuals with this disorder may develop significant loss of interest or pleasure. Likewise, some may develop mood abnormalities (e.g., inappropriate smiling, laughing, or silly facial expressions; depression, anxiety or anger). Often there is day-night reversal (i.e., staying up late at night and then sleeping late into the day). The individual may show a lack of interest in eating or may refuse food as a consequence of delusional beliefs. Often movement is abnormal (e.g., pacing, rocking, or apathetic immobility). Frequently there are significant cognitive impairments (e.g., poor concentratiion, poor memory, and impaired problem-solving ability). The majority of individuals with Schizophrenia are unaware that they have a psychotic illness. This poor insight is neurologically caused by illness, rather than simply being a coping behavior. This is comparable to the lack of awareness of neurological deficits seen in stroke. This poor insight predisposes the individual to noncompliance with treatment and has been found to be predictive of higher relapse rates, increased number of involuntary hospitalizations, poorer functioning, and a poorer course of illness. Depersonalization, derealization, and somatic concerns may occur and sometimes reach delusional proportions. Motor abnormalities (e.g., grimacing, posturing, odd mannerisms, ritualistic or stereotyped behavior) are sometimes present. The life expectancy of individual with Schizophrenia is shorter than that of the general population for a variety of reasons. Suicide is an important factor, because approximately 10% of individuals with Schizophrenia commit suicide - and between 20% and 40% make at least one suicide attempt. There is an increased risk of assaultive and violent behavior. The major predictors of violent behavior are male gender, younger age, past history of violence, noncompliance with antipsychotic medication, and excessive substance use. However, it should be noted that most individuals with Schizophrenia are not more dangerous to others than those in the general population. Comorbidity Alcoholism and drug abuse worsen the course of this illness, and are frequently associated with it. From 80% to 90% of individuals with Schizophrenia are regular cigarette smokers. Anxiety and phobias are common in Schizophrenia, and there is an increased risk of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Panic Disorder. Schizotypal, Schizoid, or Paranoid Personality Disorder may sometimes precede the onset of Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Tests No laboratory test has been found to be diagnostic of this disorder. However, individuals with Schizophrenia often have a number of (non-diagnostic) neurological abnormalities. They have enlargement of the lateral ventricles, decreased brain tissue, decreased volume of the temporal lobe and thalamus, a large cavum septum pellucidi, and hypofrontality (decreased blood flow and metabolic functioning of the frontal lobes). They also have a number of cognitive deficits on psychological testing (e.g., poor attention, poor memory, difficulty in changing response set, impairment in sensory gating, abnormal smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements, slowed reaction time, alterations in brain laterality, and abnormalities in evoked potential electrocephalograms).Prevalence Schizophrenia is the fourth leading cause of disability in the developed world (for ages 15-44), and Schizophrenia is observed worldwide. Lifetime prevalence varies from 0.5% to 1.5%. The incidence of Schizophrenia is slightly higher in men than women. Negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, lack of motivation, flat emotions) tend to predominate in men; whereas depressive episodes, paranoid delusions, and hallucinations tend to predominate in Course Schizophrenia usually starts between the late teens and the mid-30s, whereas onset prior to adolescence is rare (although cases with age at onset of 5 or 6 years have been reported). Schizophrenia can also begin later in life (e.g., after age 45 years), but this is uncommon. Usually the onset of Schizophrenia occurs a few years earlier in men than women. The onset may be abrupt or insidious. Usually Schizophrenia starts gradually with a prepsychotic phase of increasing negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, deterioration in hygiene and grooming, unusual behavior, outbursts of anger, and loss of interest in school or work). A few months or years later, a psychotic phase develops (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). Individuals who have an onset of Schizophrenia later in their 20's or 30's are more often female, have less evidence of structural brain abnormalities or cognitive impairment, and display a better outcome. Schizophrenia usually persists, continuously or episodically, for a life-time. Complete remission (i.e., a return to full premorbid functioning) is uncommon. Some individuals appear to have a relatively stable course, whereas others show a progressive worsening associated with severe disability. The psychotic symptoms usually respond to treatment with antipsychotic medication, whereas the negative symptoms are less responsive to antipsychotic medication. Often the negative symptoms steadily become more prominent during the course of Schizophrenia. Outcome The best outcomes are associated with early and persistent treatment with antipsychotic medication soon after the onset of Schizophrenia. Other factors that are associated with a better prognosis include good premorbid adjustment, acute onset, later age at onset, good insight, being female, precipitating events, associated mood disturbance, brief duration of psychotic symptoms, good interepisode functioning, minimal residual symptoms, absence of structural brain abnormalities, normal neurological functioning, a family history of Mood Disorder, and no family history of Schizophrenia. Familial Pattern The first-degree biological relatives of individuals with Schizophrenia have a risk for Schizophrenia that is about 10 times greater than that of the general population. Concordance rates for Schizophrenia are higher in monozygotic (identical) twins than in dizygotic (fraternal) twins. The existence of a substantial discordance rate in monozygotic twins also indicates the importance of environmental factors. Treatment Antipsychotic medication shortens the duration of psychosis in Schizophrenia, and prevents recurrences (but psychotic relapses can still occur under stress). Usually it takes years before individuals can accept that they have Schizophrenia and need medication. When individuals stop their antipsychotic medication, it may take months (or even years) before they suffer a psychotic relapse. Most, however, relapse within weeks. After each psychotic relapse there is increased intellectual impairment. Antipsychotic medication (+/- antidepressant medication +/- antianxiety medication) usually prevents suicide, minimizes rehospitalization, and dramatically improves social functioning. Unfortunately, even on antipsychotic medication, most individuals with Schizophrenia can't return to gainful employment due to the intellectual impairments caused by this illness (e.g., poor concentration, poor memory, impaired problem-solving, inability to "multi-task", and apathy). Life-long treatment with antipsychotic medication is essential for recovery from Schizophrenia. Individuals also require long-term emotional and financial support from their families. Most individuals with Schizophrenia qualify for government (or insurance) disability pensions. Social rehabilitation (e.g., club-houses, supervised social activities) and sheltered/volunteer employment are also essential. Certain illicit drugs, especially cannabis ("pot") , have been shown to actually cause Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Features This disorder, at some point in the illness, involves a psychotic phase (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). This psychotic phase must last for at least one month (or less if successfully treated). Schizophrenia also causes impairment in social or vocational functioning which must last for at least 6 months. The psychotic phase is not due to a medical condition, medication, or illegal drug. Complications Individuals with this disorder may develop significant loss of interest or pleasure. Likewise, some may develop mood abnormalities (e.g., inappropriate smiling, laughing, or silly facial expressions; depression, anxiety or anger). Often there is day-night reversal (i.e., staying up late at night and then sleeping late into the day). The individual may show a lack of interest in eating or may refuse food as a consequence of delusional beliefs. Often movement is abnormal (e.g., pacing, rocking, or apathetic immobility). Frequently there are significant cognitive impairments (e.g., poor concentratiion, poor memory, and impaired problem-solving ability). The majority of individuals with Schizophrenia are unaware that they have a psychotic illness. This poor insight is neurologically caused by illness, rather than simply being a coping behavior. This is comparable to the lack of awareness of neurological deficits seen in stroke. This poor insight predisposes the individual to noncompliance with treatment and has been found to be predictive of higher relapse rates, increased number of involuntary hospitalizations, poorer functioning, and a poorer course of illness. Depersonalization, derealization, and somatic concerns may occur and sometimes reach delusional proportions. Motor abnormalities (e.g., grimacing, posturing, odd mannerisms, ritualistic or stereotyped behavior) are sometimes present. The life expectancy of individual with Schizophrenia is shorter than that of the general population for a variety of reasons. Suicide is an important factor, because approximately 10% of individuals with Schizophrenia commit suicide - and between 20% and 40% make at least one suicide attempt. There is an increased risk of assaultive and violent behavior. The major predictors of violent behavior are male gender, younger age, past history of violence, noncompliance with antipsychotic medication, and excessive substance use. However, it should be noted that most individuals with Schizophrenia are not more dangerous to others than those in the general population. Comorbidity Alcoholism and drug abuse worsen the course of this illness, and are frequently associated with it. From 80% to 90% of individuals with Schizophrenia are regular cigarette smokers. Anxiety and phobias are common in Schizophrenia, and there is an increased risk of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Panic Disorder. Schizotypal, Schizoid, or Paranoid Personality Disorder may sometimes precede the onset of Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Tests No laboratory test has been found to be diagnostic of this disorder. However, individuals with Schizophrenia often have a number of (non-diagnostic) neurological abnormalities. They have enlargement of the lateral ventricles, decreased brain tissue, decreased volume of the temporal lobe and thalamus, a large cavum septum pellucidi, and hypofrontality (decreased blood flow and metabolic functioning of the frontal lobes). They also have a number of cognitive deficits on psychological testing (e.g., poor attention, poor memory, difficulty in changing response set, impairment in sensory gating, abnormal smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements, slowed reaction time, alterations in brain laterality, and abnormalities in evoked potential electrocephalograms).Prevalence Schizophrenia is the fourth leading cause of disability in the developed world (for ages 15-44), and Schizophrenia is observed worldwide. Lifetime prevalence varies from 0.5% to 1.5%. The incidence of Schizophrenia is slightly higher in men than women. Negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, lack of motivation, flat emotions) tend to predominate in men; whereas depressive episodes, paranoid delusions, and hallucinations tend to predominate in Course Schizophrenia usually starts between the late teens and the mid-30s, whereas onset prior to adolescence is rare (although cases with age at onset of 5 or 6 years have been reported). Schizophrenia can also begin later in life (e.g., after age 45 years), but this is uncommon. Usually the onset of Schizophrenia occurs a few years earlier in men than women. The onset may be abrupt or insidious. Usually Schizophrenia starts gradually with a prepsychotic phase of increasing negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, deterioration in hygiene and grooming, unusual behavior, outbursts of anger, and loss of interest in school or work). A few months or years later, a psychotic phase develops (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). Individuals who have an onset of Schizophrenia later in their 20's or 30's are more often female, have less evidence of structural brain abnormalities or cognitive impairment, and display a better outcome. Schizophrenia usually persists, continuously or episodically, for a life-time. Complete remission (i.e., a return to full premorbid functioning) is uncommon. Some individuals appear to have a relatively stable course, whereas others show a progressive worsening associated with severe disability. The psychotic symptoms usually respond to treatment with antipsychotic medication, whereas the negative symptoms are less responsive to antipsychotic medication. Often the negative symptoms steadily become more prominent during the course of Schizophrenia. Outcome The best outcomes are associated with early and persistent treatment with antipsychotic medication soon after the onset of Schizophrenia. Other factors that are associated with a better prognosis include good premorbid adjustment, acute onset, later age at onset, good insight, being female, precipitating events, associated mood disturbance, brief duration of psychotic symptoms, good interepisode functioning, minimal residual symptoms, absence of structural brain abnormalities, normal neurological functioning, a family history of Mood Disorder, and no family history of Schizophrenia. Familial Pattern The first-degree biological relatives of individuals with Schizophrenia have a risk for Schizophrenia that is about 10 times greater than that of the general population. Concordance rates for Schizophrenia are higher in monozygotic (identical) twins than in dizygotic (fraternal) twins. The existence of a substantial discordance rate in monozygotic twins also indicates the importance of environmental factors. Treatment Antipsychotic medication shortens the duration of psychosis in Schizophrenia, and prevents recurrences (but psychotic relapses can still occur under stress). Usually it takes years before individuals can accept that they have Schizophrenia and need medication. When individuals stop their antipsychotic medication, it may take months (or even years) before they suffer a psychotic relapse. Most, however, relapse within weeks. After each psychotic relapse there is increased intellectual impairment. Antipsychotic medication (+/- antidepressant medication +/- antianxiety medication) usually prevents suicide, minimizes rehospitalization, and dramatically improves social functioning. Unfortunately, even on antipsychotic medication, most individuals with Schizophrenia can't return to gainful employment due to the intellectual impairments caused by this illness (e.g., poor concentration, poor memory, impaired problem-solving, inability to "multi-task", and apathy). Life-long treatment with antipsychotic medication is essential for recovery from Schizophrenia. Individuals also require long-term emotional and financial support from their families. Most individuals with Schizophrenia qualify for government (or insurance) disability pensions. Social rehabilitation (e.g., club-houses, supervised social activities) and sheltered/volunteer employment are also essential. Certain illicit drugs, especially cannabis ("pot") , have been shown to actually cause Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Features This disorder, at some point in the illness, involves a psychotic phase (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). This psychotic phase must last for at least one month (or less if successfully treated). Schizophrenia also causes impairment in social or vocational functioning which must last for at least 6 months. The psychotic phase is not due to a medical condition, medication, or illegal drug. Complications Individuals with this disorder may develop significant loss of interest or pleasure. Likewise, some may develop mood abnormalities (e.g., inappropriate smiling, laughing, or silly facial expressions; depression, anxiety or anger). Often there is day-night reversal (i.e., staying up late at night and then sleeping late into the day). The individual may show a lack of interest in eating or may refuse food as a consequence of delusional beliefs. Often movement is abnormal (e.g., pacing, rocking, or apathetic immobility). Frequently there are significant cognitive impairments (e.g., poor concentratiion, poor memory, and impaired problem-solving ability). The majority of individuals with Schizophrenia are unaware that they have a psychotic illness. This poor insight is neurologically caused by illness, rather than simply being a coping behavior. This is comparable to the lack of awareness of neurological deficits seen in stroke. This poor insight predisposes the individual to noncompliance with treatment and has been found to be predictive of higher relapse rates, increased number of involuntary hospitalizations, poorer functioning, and a poorer course of illness. Depersonalization, derealization, and somatic concerns may occur and sometimes reach delusional proportions. Motor abnormalities (e.g., grimacing, posturing, odd mannerisms, ritualistic or stereotyped behavior) are sometimes present. The life expectancy of individual with Schizophrenia is shorter than that of the general population for a variety of reasons. Suicide is an important factor, because approximately 10% of individuals with Schizophrenia commit suicide - and between 20% and 40% make at least one suicide attempt. There is an increased risk of assaultive and violent behavior. The major predictors of violent behavior are male gender, younger age, past history of violence, noncompliance with antipsychotic medication, and excessive substance use. However, it should be noted that most individuals with Schizophrenia are not more dangerous to others than those in the general population. Comorbidity Alcoholism and drug abuse worsen the course of this illness, and are frequently associated with it. From 80% to 90% of individuals with Schizophrenia are regular cigarette smokers. Anxiety and phobias are common in Schizophrenia, and there is an increased risk of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Panic Disorder. Schizotypal, Schizoid, or Paranoid Personality Disorder may sometimes precede the onset of Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Tests No laboratory test has been found to be diagnostic of this disorder. However, individuals with Schizophrenia often have a number of (non-diagnostic) neurological abnormalities. They have enlargement of the lateral ventricles, decreased brain tissue, decreased volume of the temporal lobe and thalamus, a large cavum septum pellucidi, and hypofrontality (decreased blood flow and metabolic functioning of the frontal lobes). They also have a number of cognitive deficits on psychological testing (e.g., poor attention, poor memory, difficulty in changing response set, impairment in sensory gating, abnormal smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements, slowed reaction time, alterations in brain laterality, and abnormalities in evoked potential electrocephalograms).Prevalence Schizophrenia is the fourth leading cause of disability in the developed world (for ages 15-44), and Schizophrenia is observed worldwide. Lifetime prevalence varies from 0.5% to 1.5%. The incidence of Schizophrenia is slightly higher in men than women. Negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, lack of motivation, flat emotions) tend to predominate in men; whereas depressive episodes, paranoid delusions, and hallucinations tend to predominate in Course Schizophrenia usually starts between the late teens and the mid-30s, whereas onset prior to adolescence is rare (although cases with age at onset of 5 or 6 years have been reported). Schizophrenia can also begin later in life (e.g., after age 45 years), but this is uncommon. Usually the onset of Schizophrenia occurs a few years earlier in men than women. The onset may be abrupt or insidious. Usually Schizophrenia starts gradually with a prepsychotic phase of increasing negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, deterioration in hygiene and grooming, unusual behavior, outbursts of anger, and loss of interest in school or work). A few months or years later, a psychotic phase develops (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). Individuals who have an onset of Schizophrenia later in their 20's or 30's are more often female, have less evidence of structural brain abnormalities or cognitive impairment, and display a better outcome. Schizophrenia usually persists, continuously or episodically, for a life-time. Complete remission (i.e., a return to full premorbid functioning) is uncommon. Some individuals appear to have a relatively stable course, whereas others show a progressive worsening associated with severe disability. The psychotic symptoms usually respond to treatment with antipsychotic medication, whereas the negative symptoms are less responsive to antipsychotic medication. Often the negative symptoms steadily become more prominent during the course of Schizophrenia. Outcome The best outcomes are associated with early and persistent treatment with antipsychotic medication soon after the onset of Schizophrenia. Other factors that are associated with a better prognosis include good premorbid adjustment, acute onset, later age at onset, good insight, being female, precipitating events, associated mood disturbance, brief duration of psychotic symptoms, good interepisode functioning, minimal residual symptoms, absence of structural brain abnormalities, normal neurological functioning, a family history of Mood Disorder, and no family history of Schizophrenia. Familial Pattern The first-degree biological relatives of individuals with Schizophrenia have a risk for Schizophrenia that is about 10 times greater than that of the general population. Concordance rates for Schizophrenia are higher in monozygotic (identical) twins than in dizygotic (fraternal) twins. The existence of a substantial discordance rate in monozygotic twins also indicates the importance of environmental factors. Treatment Antipsychotic medication shortens the duration of psychosis in Schizophrenia, and prevents recurrences (but psychotic relapses can still occur under stress). Usually it takes years before individuals can accept that they have Schizophrenia and need medication. When individuals stop their antipsychotic medication, it may take months (or even years) before they suffer a psychotic relapse. Most, however, relapse within weeks. After each psychotic relapse there is increased intellectual impairment. Antipsychotic medication (+/- antidepressant medication +/- antianxiety medication) usually prevents suicide, minimizes rehospitalization, and dramatically improves social functioning. Unfortunately, even on antipsychotic medication, most individuals with Schizophrenia can't return to gainful employment due to the intellectual impairments caused by this illness (e.g., poor concentration, poor memory, impaired problem-solving, inability to "multi-task", and apathy). Life-long treatment with antipsychotic medication is essential for recovery from Schizophrenia. Individuals also require long-term emotional and financial support from their families. Most individuals with Schizophrenia qualify for government (or insurance) disability pensions. Social rehabilitation (e.g., club-houses, supervised social activities) and sheltered/volunteer employment are also essential. Certain illicit drugs, especially cannabis ("pot") , have been shown to actually cause Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Features This disorder, at some point in the illness, involves a psychotic phase (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). This psychotic phase must last for at least one month (or less if successfully treated). Schizophrenia also causes impairment in social or vocational functioning which must last for at least 6 months. The psychotic phase is not due to a medical condition, medication, or illegal drug. Complications Individuals with this disorder may develop significant loss of interest or pleasure. Likewise, some may develop mood abnormalities (e.g., inappropriate smiling, laughing, or silly facial expressions; depression, anxiety or anger). Often there is day-night reversal (i.e., staying up late at night and then sleeping late into the day). The individual may show a lack of interest in eating or may refuse food as a consequence of delusional beliefs. Often movement is abnormal (e.g., pacing, rocking, or apathetic immobility). Frequently there are significant cognitive impairments (e.g., poor concentratiion, poor memory, and impaired problem-solving ability). The majority of individuals with Schizophrenia are unaware that they have a psychotic illness. This poor insight is neurologically caused by illness, rather than simply being a coping behavior. This is comparable to the lack of awareness of neurological deficits seen in stroke. This poor insight predisposes the individual to noncompliance with treatment and has been found to be predictive of higher relapse rates, increased number of involuntary hospitalizations, poorer functioning, and a poorer course of illness. Depersonalization, derealization, and somatic concerns may occur and sometimes reach delusional proportions. Motor abnormalities (e.g., grimacing, posturing, odd mannerisms, ritualistic or stereotyped behavior) are sometimes present. The life expectancy of individual with Schizophrenia is shorter than that of the general population for a variety of reasons. Suicide is an important factor, because approximately 10% of individuals with Schizophrenia commit suicide - and between 20% and 40% make at least one suicide attempt. There is an increased risk of assaultive and violent behavior. The major predictors of violent behavior are male gender, younger age, past history of violence, noncompliance with antipsychotic medication, and excessive substance use. However, it should be noted that most individuals with Schizophrenia are not more dangerous to others than those in the general population. Comorbidity Alcoholism and drug abuse worsen the course of this illness, and are frequently associated with it. From 80% to 90% of individuals with Schizophrenia are regular cigarette smokers. Anxiety and phobias are common in Schizophrenia, and there is an increased risk of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Panic Disorder. Schizotypal, Schizoid, or Paranoid Personality Disorder may sometimes precede the onset of Schizophrenia. Diagnostic Tests No laboratory test has been found to be diagnostic of this disorder. However, individuals with Schizophrenia often have a number of (non-diagnostic) neurological abnormalities. They have enlargement of the lateral ventricles, decreased brain tissue, decreased volume of the temporal lobe and thalamus, a large cavum septum pellucidi, and hypofrontality (decreased blood flow and metabolic functioning of the frontal lobes). They also have a number of cognitive deficits on psychological testing (e.g., poor attention, poor memory, difficulty in changing response set, impairment in sensory gating, abnormal smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements, slowed reaction time, alterations in brain laterality, and abnormalities in evoked potential electrocephalograms).Prevalence Schizophrenia is the fourth leading cause of disability in the developed world (for ages 15-44), and Schizophrenia is observed worldwide. Lifetime prevalence varies from 0.5% to 1.5%. The incidence of Schizophrenia is slightly higher in men than women. Negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, lack of motivation, flat emotions) tend to predominate in men; whereas depressive episodes, paranoid delusions, and hallucinations tend to predominate in Course Schizophrenia usually starts between the late teens and the mid-30s, whereas onset prior to adolescence is rare (although cases with age at onset of 5 or 6 years have been reported). Schizophrenia can also begin later in life (e.g., after age 45 years), but this is uncommon. Usually the onset of Schizophrenia occurs a few years earlier in men than women. The onset may be abrupt or insidious. Usually Schizophrenia starts gradually with a prepsychotic phase of increasing negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, deterioration in hygiene and grooming, unusual behavior, outbursts of anger, and loss of interest in school or work). A few months or years later, a psychotic phase develops (with delusions, hallucinations, or grossly bizarre/disorganized speech and behavior). Individuals who have an onset of Schizophrenia later in their 20's or 30's are more often female, have less evidence of structural brain abnormalities or cognitive impairment, and display a better outcome. Schizophrenia usually persists, continuously or episodically, for a life-time. Complete remission (i.e., a return to full premorbid functioning) is uncommon. Some individuals appear to have a relatively stable course, whereas others show a progressive worsening associated with severe disability. The psychotic symptoms usually respond to treatment with antipsychotic medication, whereas the negative symptoms are less responsive to antipsychotic medication. Often the negative symptoms steadily become more prominent during the course of Schizophrenia. Outcome The best outcomes are associated with early and persistent treatment with antipsychotic medication soon after the onset of Schizophrenia. Other factors that are associated with a better prognosis include good premorbid adjustment, acute onset, later age at onset, good insight, being female, precipitating events, associated mood disturbance, brief duration of psychotic symptoms, good interepisode functioning, minimal residual symptoms, absence of structural brain abnormalities, normal neurological functioning, a family history of Mood Disorder, and no family history of Schizophrenia. Familial Pattern The first-degree biological relatives of individuals with Schizophrenia have a risk for Schizophrenia that is about 10 times greater than that of the general population. Concordance rates for Schizophrenia are higher in monozygotic (identical) twins than in dizygotic (fraternal) twins. The existence of a substantial discordance rate in monozygotic twins also indicates the importance of environmental factors. Treatment Antipsychotic medication shortens the duration of psychosis in Schizophrenia, and prevents recurrences (but psychotic relapses can still occur under stress). Usually it takes years before individuals can accept that they have Schizophrenia and need medication. When individuals stop their antipsychotic medication, it may take months (or even years) before they suffer a psychotic relapse. Most, however, relapse within weeks. After each psychotic relapse there is increased intellectual impairment. Antipsychotic medication (+/- antidepressant medication +/- antianxiety medication) usually prevents suicide, minimizes rehospitalization, and dramatically improves social functioning. Unfortunately, even on antipsychotic medication, most individuals with Schizophrenia can't return to gainful employment due to the intellectual impairments caused by this illness (e.g., poor concentration, poor memory, impaired problem-solving, inability to "multi-task", and apathy). Life-long treatment with antipsychotic medication is essential for recovery from Schizophrenia. Individuals also require long-term emotional and financial support from their families. Most individuals with Schizophrenia qualify for government (or insurance) disability pensions. Social rehabilitation (e.g., club-houses, supervised social activities) and sheltered/volunteer employment are also essential. Certain illicit drugs, especially cannabis ("pot") , have been shown to actually cause Schizophrenia.
