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Change is structure of the economy- job growth has occurred among women and the older workers in the service sector of the economy, while union strength has traditionally been among urban blue collar workers, especially middle-aged workers.

Management efforts to control costs-unionized workers receive higher pay than their nonunionized counterparts, and the pressure is greater because of international competition.

Human Resource practices- competition for scarce human resources can lead employers to offer much of what employees traditionally sought through union membership.

Government regulation- stricter regulation in such areas as workplace safety and equal employment opportunity leaves fewer areas in which unions can show an advantage over what employers must already offer.

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