The first notion of a copy having value was in the 7th century, but the first time a right to copy was extended to the creator rather than the printer was with the Statute of Anne, in 1709. Prior to that, the "copy right" was based on a registration system managed by the Worshipful Company of Stationers, and was generally used for censorship more than anything else.
The copyright holder, or anyone the copyright holder authorizes.
Orphan works are works in which there IS a valid copyright but they holder of the copyright has not come forward or is not know. They are NOT available for reproduction.
The copyright holder or their appointed representative can take action.
With permission from the copyright holder, yes.
In writing.
Only use materials in the public domain, for which you are the copyright holder, or for which you have permission from the copyright holder or an exemption in the law.
The only way to be certain is to contact the copyright holder yourself.
Nothing will happen to a person who breaches copyright law unless the holder of the copyright chooses to sue the violator. The lawsuit court settlement will determine the monetary damagesowed to the copyright holder (if any).
Unless other arrangements are made, the creator of the work is the automatic copyright holder.
You need permission from the copyright holder or an exemption in the law.
Unless other arrangements were made, the creator is the initial copyright holder.
Unless other arrangements were made, the creator is automatically the copyright holder.