Israelites

Tribes of Israel
The Tribes Reuben Simeon Levi Judah Dan Naphtali Gad Asher Issachar Zebulun Joseph Manasseh Ephraim Benjamin
Related topics Children of Israel Ten Lost Tribes

The Israelites were the dominant cultural and ethnic group living in Canaan in Biblical times, composing the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Modern Jewish people claim to be descended from the Tribes of Israel.

The English word Israelite derives from ישראל (Standard Yisraʾel Tiberian Yiśrāʾēl), referring to Israel, which is traditionally translated as Upright (with) God (see the article Israel for details on the word's definition).

Tribal Divisions

Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Manasseh, Ephraim, and Benjamin. In parts of the Bible, Ephraim and Manasseh are treated as together constituting the House of Joseph, while the Levi have a special religious role and had only scattered cities as territory; whence traditionally either Ephraim and Manasseh were counted as one tribe, or Levi wasn't counted, so that together the tribes were the Twelve Tribes of Israel.

The division into Tribes was geographical, as well as genealogical; each tribe held a distinct territory, though there are a few peculiarities. Levi had no territory, but lived in towns and cities scattered as enclaves within the territory of the other tribes, Simeon's territory was entirely inside the territory of Judah, and Manasseh was split between the half tribe west of the Jordan, and the other half tribe on the eastern side. The Kingdom of Judah consisted of Judah, Simeon, Benjamin, and the parts of Levi within those lands, while the Kingdom of Israel contained Reuben, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Manasseh, Ephraim, and the remainder of Levi.

1759 map of the initial tribal allocations - the actual territories occupied by the tribes during the United Monarchy and afterwards was somewhat different

Some English speaking Jewish groups view the pronunciation, English transcription, and Hebrew spelling, of the tribal names to be extremely important; these transcriptions and spellings are as follows:

• Reuben:
  • ראובן, Standard Rəʾuven, Tiberian Rəʾûḇēn
  • ראובני, Standard Ruʾuveni, Tiberian Ruʾûḇēnî
• Simeon:
  • שמעון, Standard Šimʿon, Tiberian Šimʿôn
  • שמעני, Standard Šimʿoni, Tiberian Šimʿônî
• Levi:
  • לוי, Standard Levi, Tiberian Lēwî
• Judah:
  • יהודה, Standard Yəhuda, Tiberian Yəhûḏāh
  • יהודי, Standard Yəhudi, Tiberian Yəhûḏî
• Dan:
  • דן, Standard Dan, Tiberian Dān
  • דני, Standard Dani, Tiberian Dānî
• Naphtali:
  • נפתלי, Standard Naftali, Tiberian Nap̄tālî
• Gad:
  • גד, Standard Gad, Tiberian Gāḏ
  • גדי, Tiberian Standard Gadi, Gāḏî
• Asher:
  • אשר, Standard Ašer, Tiberian ʾĀšēr
  • אשרי, Standard Ašeri, Tiberian ʾĀšērî
• Issachar:
  • יששכר, Standard Yissaḫar, Tiberian Yiśśâḵār
  • יששכרי, Standard Yissaḫari, Tiberian Yiśśâḵārî
• Zebulun:
  • זבולן, Standard Zəvúlun, Tiberian Zəḇûlun
  • זבולני, Standard Zəvuloni, Tiberian Zəḇûlōnî
• Joseph:
  • יוסף, Standard Yosef, Tiberian Yôsēp̄
  • יוספי, Standard Yosefi, Tiberian Yôsēp̄î
  • containing the tribes:
    • Manasseh:
      • מנשה, Samaritan Manatch, Standard Mənašše, Tiberian Mənaššeh
      • מנשי, Standard Mənašši, Tiberian Mənaššî
    • Ephraim:
      • אפרים, Samaritan Afrime, Standard Efráyim, Tiberian ʾEp̄ráyim / ʾEp̄rāyim
      • אפרתי, Standard Efrati, Tiberian ʾEp̄rāṯî
• Benjamin
  • בנימין, Standard Binyamin, Tiberian Binyāmîn
  • בן־הימיני Standard Ben haYmini, Tiberian Ben-haYmînî

Origin of the Tribes

According to the Torah, each tribe was descended from one of the twelve eponymous sons of Jacob, apart from two tribes (Manasseh and Ephraim) whose eponymous founders were the sons of Joseph, the remaining son of Jacob. However, the biblical account is viewed by Biblical scholars as an aetiological postdiction rather than as history, and neglects to acknowledge changes in the membership of the tribal confederation^[1]. The changing form of the Israelite confederation is, according to textual and biblical scholars, evident from the variation in the treatment and appearance of each tribe between various Biblical passages^[2]. In particular is the text of three biblical poems - the Song of Deborah, Blessing of Jacob, and Blessing of Moses - with the Song of Deborah being the oldest and Blessing of Moses the youngest^[3]. Comparison between these three, archaeology, and other passages, raises several points:

• The tribes which later became the Kingdom of Judah (Judah and Simeon) are unmentioned in the oldest poem, and when Simeon does appear it is as a scattered group, rather than a clear territorial entity^[4]. Israel Finkelstein et al. have concluded from their findings that the territory occupied by these tribes was little more than a rural backwater compared with the remainder of Canaan, too insignificant for the remaining tribes to form a confederation with, until well after the 9th century BC ^[5].

• The Levites are not mentioned by the oldest poem; also, the parts of the Torah attributed by textual scholars to the Elohist, seem to treat Levite as a descriptive attribute for someone particularly suited to the priesthood, rather than as the designator of a tribe, and refers to Moses and Aaron as part of the Joseph group rather than being part of a tribe called Levi^[6]. Jahwist passages have more ambiguous language; traditionally interpreted as referring to a person named Levi they could also be interpreted as just referring to a social position titled levi^[7]. In the Blessing of Jacob (later than the Song of Deborah), Levi is treated as a tribe, cursing them to become scattered; scholars regard this as an aetiological postdiction to explain how a tribe could be so scattered, the simpler solution being that the priesthood was originally open to any tribe, but gradually became seen as a distinct tribe to themselves^[8][9]. In the Priestly Source and Blessing of Moses, which textual scholars view as originating centuries later, the Levites are firmly established as a tribe, and the only tribe with the right to be priests.

• Although Machir and Gilead, as individuals, are described in biblical genealogies as father and son, and as son and grandson of Manasseh, in the Song of Deborah Machir and Gilead are treated as the names of tribes which are different to one another^[10]. Additionally, Manasseh is noticeable by its absence from the poem; in the Elohist and Jahwist texts Manasseh is also frequently absent, while Machir is clearly mentioned. Though there is a temptation to conclude that Machir is simply used in these passages as an older or alternative name for the tribe of Manasseh, in the Book of Numbers Machir is described as conquering a region named Gilead, and settling there, thus could only account for the eastern half tribe, and doesn't account for why Gilead is portrayed in the poem as a separate group to Machir^[11].

The biblical genealogy

The biblical genealogy of the tribes splits them into groups:

• The Leah tribes - those said to descend from Leah
  • Northern group - Reuben, Zebulon, Issachar
  • Southern group - Judah, Simeon
  • Levi ww
• The Joseph tribes - those said to descend from Rachel - Manasseh, Ephraim, Benjamin (the first two of which form the house of Joseph)
• The handmaid tribes
  • Bilhah group (said to descend from Bilhah) - Dan, Naphtali
  • Zilpah group (said to descend from Zilpah) - Gad, Asher

According to biblical scholars, the biblical genealogy reflects an attempt to determine the source of Israelite tribal structure after the fact, rather than reflecting the true origin^[12]. The handmaid tribes thus were those which the genealogy's authors felt had a sense of otherness, not being of entirely Israelite origin, hence being described as descending from handmaidens rather than actual wives^[13]. It is worth noting that the territory of the handmaid tribes happens to be the territory closest to the north and eastern borders of Canaan; they were the most exposed to Israel's immediate enemies - Assyria and Aram^[14].

A number of biblical scholars additionally suspect that the Joseph tribes are differentiated from the Leah tribes because the Joseph tribes (including Benjamin) represent a second migration of Israelites to Israel, later than the Leah tribes^[15]. According to this view, the story of Jacob's visit to Laban to obtain a wife began as a metaphor for the second migration, with Jacob's new family, possessions, and livestock, obtained from Laban, being representations of the new wave of migrants, and with Jacob's prior residence in Canaan being a later insertion into the story^[16]. It is notable that according to textual scholars, the passages of this narrative which were written by the earlier sources - the Jahwist and Elohist - do not mention Bilhah or Zilpah, who are only mentioned in the later Priestly Source, and that the Jahwist passages don't even mention Leah, but instead only recount Jacob as having met Rachel^[17][18]. According to those scholars who regard the Joseph tribes as a later addition to the Israelites, it was only the Joseph tribes which went to Egypt and returned, while the Leah tribes emerged as a subculture from the Canaanites who remained in Canaan throughout^[19].

Foreign Gods

From the point of view of textual scholars, Asher is quite indistinct as a tribe, having unclear geographic boundaries to the extent that it is uncertain whether Asher even had continuous territory ^[20]. Sites which according to the bible were allocated to Asher, whose locations have since been identified, appear to be a distribution of settlements rather than a compact and well-defined tribal region^[21].

Asher appears, throughout its history, to have been fairly disconnected from the other tribes of Israel, and seems to have taken little part in the antagonism portrayed in the Bible between the Canaanites and the other tribes^[22]; as a result, scholars generally conclude that Asher consisted of certain clans that were affiliated with portions of the Israelite tribal confederation, but were never incorporated into the body politic^[23].

In the biblical etymology, Asher is explained as meaning happy, however, biblical scholars disagree as to whether the name originates from an external or Canaanite source; the name is cognate with that of the chief Assyrian deity Asshur^[24]. A group named Aseru, which were living to the west of the Galilee, in the 14th century BC, is mentioned in Egyptian monuments of the period; though it is probable that the name of Asher derives from these Aseru, it is inconvenient for a literalist interpretation of the Bible under the traditional Biblical chronology, as it places Asher in Canaan before the Israelites left Egypt^[25].

In these features, Gad, the full brother to Asher in the biblical genealogy, shares some similarities. Lands declared to be part of Gad in some parts of the text, such as Dibon, are declared to belong to other tribes, in other parts of the text^[26]; similarly the boundaries are inconsistent between parts of the text^[27][28], and Gilead variously includes Gad^[29] and doesn't^[30]. Furthermore, the Moabite Stone seemingly differentiates between the kingdom of Israel and the tribe of Gad, presenting Gad as predating Israel in the lands east of the Jordan^[31]. This seems to indicate that Gad was originally a northwards-migrating nomadic tribe. As far as the name is concerned, it is likely that Gad took its name from Gad, the semitic god of fortune^[32].

Sea peoples

The tribe of Dan is suspected by some biblical scholars to have evolved from the Denyen, one of the groups of Sea Peoples^[33]; thus the reason that in the time period in which the Book of Judges is set, the Song of Deborah describes the tribe of Dan as residing in ships, and another narrative describes how the tribe were without a fixed abode until they conquered Laish. The Philistines are also regarded by scholars as having been one of the Sea Peoples, specifically the Peleset, and so the particular enmity between the Philistines and Dan, as portrayed in the narrative of Samson, could simply be one in which each group views the other as traitors. In a similar vein to the etymological link between the term Philistine and the term Peleset, Denyen is thought by some scholars to be the origin of the name Dan, the biblical etymology being a later guess at the name's origin^[34].

Origin and development of the Israelites

Main article: History of ancient Israel and Judah

Main article: Babylonian captivity

According to the account in the book of Genesis, the term Israelite refers to their descent from Jacob, a patriarch who was renamed Israel by God^[35], though biblical scholars believe that the term has more to do with the matriarch Sarah, wife of Abraham, whose name is cognate with Israel^[36][37]; Israel is the theophory of Isra in El, and in Hebrew, roots are triconsonantal, the roots of Isra and Sarah both being S-R-A. The Israelites are traditionally regarded as being the same as the Hebrews, since many passages in the Bible appear to make the equation, but textual scholars disagree as the term Hebrews only begins to be used in relation to the alleged band of outlaws led by David^[38]; the similarly named Habiru, attested in various ancient records, who may or may not be the Hebrews, appear to be a group wandering outlaws of mixed ethnicity^[39].

The Torah portrays the Israelites as originating as the descendants of Jacob, the grandson of a migrant from Ur Kasidim (which most scholars believe refers to Ur, in Sumeria); the text then goes on to state that all of the Israelites migrated to Egypt, but were later enslaved there, until they eventually escaped and conquered Canaan, destroying the Canaanite culture that was there and replacing it with their own. However, due to a continuation of many archaeological elements of Canaanite culture in the Israelite era, lack of evidence for a systematic conquest, and lack of any abrupt appearance of new culture, some archaeologists believe that the Israelites simply arose as a subculture within Canaanite society^[40].

The Books of Samuel indicate that the Israelites eventually came to be governed by a United Monarchy, but just a few generations later split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and Kingdom of Judah in the south. In the narrative, even during the United Monarchy, there are frequently civil wars between the forces of Israel and those of Judah, with the United Monarchy being represented only by one of these two. Israel Finkelstein et al., based on their archaeological investigations, have claimed that there were always distinct cultural divisions between the north and the south, roughly corresponding to the borders of Israel and Judah, with the south being very much the weaker and less significant of the two^[41]; they conclude that the United Monarchy is a fiction^[42].

The Kingdom of Israel was obliterated in the 720s BC, by the Assyrians under Shalmaneser V and then under Sargon II, who after conquering the land destroyed Samaria, its capital, and according to the bible deported most of the occupants into exile, with the southernmost tribe - Benjamin - managing to survive by joining the Kingdom of Judah; Assyrian chronicles of the time report that only a small number of people were deported. Assyrian policy was for the deportees to be scattered and assimilated into the Assyrian empire, and as a result the deported tribes lost their cultural identity, becoming traditionally known as the Ten Lost Tribes. The Kingdom of Judah survived until 586 BC, when Judah was conquered by Babylon, who ransacked Jerusalem, killed the heirs of the King of Judah before his eyes, gouged out the king's eyes so that would be the last thing he saw, and then deported the population into Babylonian Captivity.

Modern descent

Several groups claim to be the true descendants of various Israelite tribes. However, Israelites and Samaritans have more DNA similarities with each other than with persons not from any of those groups. They also have been shown to have more in common with those residing in Western Asia than anywhere else. This suggests a pre-dispersion origin of the aforementioned groups.

Hebrew Israelites (Black Jews, Black Hebrew Israelites)

Founded on the concept that the biblical Israelites were actually of a dark skin complexion commonly known as [Black]. The Hebrew Israelites believe themselves to be of a semitic stock originating from Jacob's twelve sons, and are the original descendants of the biblical Israelites by blood and seed, believing that modern Jews are actually descendants of the Kazars. Hebrew Israelites belief is evident by claiming that the word Jewish means merely pertaining to Judah and that the term Jew in itself was actually a mistranslation in the King James version of the Bible for Judah. Because of the mistranslation the word the word Jew entered into common use. While it is correct that the Latin word Iudaeus does mean Judaean or from the land of Judaea, it should be noted that the etymology of the English word can be traced back to Middle English with evidence of use in Old English as well (see Etymology of the word Jew). Also purported is the belief that the Israelites were black is based on the afro-centric view of Egyptian culture. The reasoning being that if the ancient Egyptians were a dark skinned race and believing that the Moses and Joseph were both mistaken for Egyptians therefore the Israelites must have been black as well. There is, however, no evidence, whether historical, genetic, or otherwise to support their claims and not supported in mainstream academics.

Mainstream Judaism (Rabbanites)

In 539 BCE, the Persians (who had recently conquered Babylon) issued an edict (as inscribed on the Cyrus cylinder) allowing deportees to return to their homeland. Later Ezra was sent there and empowered to rebuild the Temple, and enforce a form of religion, which became Judaism, as according to the book he had in his hand; many textual scholars suspect that Ezra was the individual who redacted together the differing accounts and sources of the Torah into a single text (the Torah)^[43]. By the end of this era, the returned deportees were culturally of a single common identity rather than a collection of multiple tribes, though the tribe of Levi maintained a distinction in accordance with their religious role. It is important to note that only the tribes of Judah, Levi, and Benyamin were deported to Babylon. Modern Jews thus are themselves the descendants of the Israelite tribes of Judah (Yehudah),Levi, and Benjamin that returned from Babylon.

Samaritans

Samaritans, once comparatively large, but now a very small ethnic and religious group (not more than about 700 persons^[44]) living in the State of Israel and the West Bank, regard themselves as descendants of the tribes of Ephraim (named by them as Aphrime) and Manasseh (named by them as Manatch). Samaritans adhere to a version of the Torah, known as the Samaritan Pentateuch, which occasionally differs from the Masoretic text, and less so from the Septuagint, sometimes in important ways. Samaritans do not regard the Tanakh as an accurate or truthful history, regard only Moses as a prophet, have their own unique version of Hebrew, and do not regard themselves as part of Judaism. Since 539 BCE, many Jews have rejected outright the claims of the Samaritans to have descent from Ephraim and Manasseh, though some regard them as another sect of Judaism.

Karaites

Mainstream Judaism regards both the Tanakh and an Oral Law (codified and recorded in the Mishnah and Talmuds) as the foundation of their religion, morality, and other laws. the followers of Karaite Judaism are those who regard the Tanakh as scripture, but reject the Oral Law; the consequences, for example, being that Karaites do not require adherents to wear Tefillin in any form, but do require tekhelet in their Tzitzit, in contradistinction to Halacha. There are approximately 50,000 adherents of Karaite Judaism, most of whom reside in the modern state of Israel, but exact numbers are not known, as most Karaites have not participated in any religious censuses. Like the Samaritans, the division between themselves and Mainstream Judaism goes back many hundreds of years.

Rastafari

Rastas believe that the black races are the lost Israelites. They interpret the Bible as implying that Haile Selassie was the returned messiah, who would lead the world's peoples of African descent into a promised land of full emancipation and divine justice. One Rastafari order named The Twelve Tribes of Israel, imposes a metaphysical astrology whereby Aries is Reuben, Aquarius is Joseph, etc. With his famous early reggae song The Israelites Desmond Dekker immortalised the Rastafari concept of themselves as the Lost Children of Israel. Though, the Black Rastafari claim to be descendents of Ham, the Old Testament of the Bible clearly states that Abraham is descended from Shem(Sem /Semitic)and therefore the Israelites would not be African descended(Ham).

Messianic Judaism

Main article: Messianic Judaism

Messianic Judaism considers Jesus as the Messiah called Moshiach, but regards itself as Jewish. Messianic Judaism comes in several forms, some of which accept core doctrines of Christianity and/or Judaism, and some which do not or only in degrees. It is frequently lead by individuals who ethnically are Jewish^{[citation needed]}, but many individuals who are not ethnically Jewish also attend the synagogues and meeting places of Messianic Judaism, especially those embracing the Two House Movement. Those adherents of Messianic Judaism who are not ethnically Jewish consider themselves as grafted in to the tribes of Israel, thus regarding themselves as Jewish and/or Israelite, in a similar way to how the descendants of Caleb and those of Ruth (great grandmother of King David) are treated by the Bible as being Jewish, despite both Caleb and Ruth not originally being Jewish by ethnicity. The relationship of Messianic Judaism to other forms of Judaism is sometimes politicised; the Southern Baptist Convention and the Assemblies of God movement actively encourage and aid the establishment of new Messianic Judaism congregations, as part of their efforts to evangelize to and convert the Jewish people.

Latter-day Saints

See also: Mormonism and Judaism

The Latter Day Saint movement (commonly termed Mormons), a large collection of religious groups, the largest of which - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints - has over 12 million members, believe that through baptism and receiving the Gift of the Holy Ghost, they become "regathered" Israelites, either as recovered from the scattered seed of Israel, or as Gentiles adopted and grafted into Israel, and thus becoming part of the chosen people of God^[45]. These religious denominations derive from that started by Joseph Smith, Jr., and almost half of all members (termed Latter-day Saints by themselves) live in the United States, while the rest are scattered in countries on every continent all over the world; the movement does not strictly believe that they are ethnic Jews as such, but rather that Israelites can refer to many different cultures, on occasion including Jews^[46]. They believe that certain Old Testament passages^[47] are prophecies implying that the House of Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) will take a prominent role in the spread of the gospel to all of scattered Israel in the last days, and that the House of Judah (ie. Judah) also has a prominent role in the last days and during the Millennium^[48].

European Christian Identity

Main article: Christian Identity

http://www.tomorrowsworld.org/cgi-bin/tw/booklets/tw-bk.cgi?category=Booklets1&item=1104094367 A number of groups claim to be the only true Israelites. These groups generally do not recognize the validity of Jews (see, for example, this page), or any other group that claims Israelite descent. Mainstream historians, as well as religious and secular authorities, dismiss the claims of such groups, since they behave in a manner openly hostile to Jews and Judaism, believing that they supersede them. But, not all these self claiming Israelites are anti-Semitic. It is interesting to note that many of these group accept the validity of the Sephardim and Mizrachi. That is Jews who have been living in Mediterranean and Arab Countries. The Sephardim were exiled here after the Babylonian exile, and also after the Rebellion in the year 70AD. The Romans deported them there, and some moved back to Safed, Israel in the last 1000 years. Also, genetically they are Semitic and related to the Arab Semitic people of the Middle East who claim descent from Abraham's first son Ishmael.

AEMINPU Israelites

Founded in Peru in 1968 by Ezequiel Ataucusi Gamonal, AEMINPU (Asociacion Evangelica de la Mision Israelita del Nuevo Pacto Universal) is an evangelical movement which teaches the doctrine of Christ, believing that Jesus came to show humankind how to put the Ten Commandments into practice. Matthew 5:17 Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. The prophet Ezekiel was taken to the Third Heaven to receive the Royal Law, and told to teach the people about God's New Covenant with the spiritual Israel.

See also

• Shavei Israel
• Kingdom of Israel
• Kingdom of Judah
• Noahides - The "Strangers at your gate" mentioned in Torah
• History of ancient Israel and Judah
• Gentile
• British Israelism
• Bible and The Bible and history.
• Israelis
• Anusim

References and notes

1. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
2. ^ ibid
3. ^ ibid
4. ^ ibid
5. ^ Israel Finkelstein The Bible Unearthed
6. ^ This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.
7. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
8. ^ ibid
9. ^ Peake's commentary on the bible
10. ^ ibid
11. ^ ibid
12. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
13. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
14. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
15. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
16. ^ ibid
17. ^ ibid
18. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible?
19. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
20. ^ This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.
21. ^ ibid
22. ^ ibid
23. ^ ibid
24. ^ ibid
25. ^ ibid
26. ^ compare Numbers 33:45 with Joshua 13:15 et seq.
27. ^ compare Joshua 13:24-27 to Joshua 13:15
28. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
29. ^ for example in Judges 5:17
30. ^ 2 Samuel 24:5 / Joshua 13:24 et seq.
31. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
32. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
33. ^ Yigael Yadin And Dan, Why Did He Remain in Ships
34. ^ ibid
35. ^ Genesis 32:28
36. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
37. ^ This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain. Sarah
38. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
39. ^ Carol A. Redmount, Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt' in The Oxford History of the Biblical Word, ed: Michael D. Coogan, (Oxford University Press: 1999)
40. ^ Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed
41. ^ Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed
42. ^ ibid
43. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, Who wrote the Bible
44. ^ as of 2006
45. ^ Guide to LDS scriptural references on Israel
46. ^ ibid
47. ^ Isaiah 2:2-4, 11:10-13
48. ^ ibid

External links

• The Israelite census, of the book of numbers, in isolation, at wikisource

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