plumbing

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The basic components of a plumbing fixture include the water-supply pipes, a valve or faucet for (credit: © Merriam-Webster Inc.)

System of pipes and fixtures installed in a building for the distribution of potable water and the removal of waterborne wastes. Plumbing is usually distinguished from water and sewage systems, which serve a group of buildings or a city. Improvement in plumbing systems was very slow, with virtually no progress made from the time of the Roman system of aqueducts and lead pipes until the 19th century. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches. Present-day water pipes are usually made of steel, copper, brass, plastic, or other nontoxic material. A building's waste-disposal system has two parts: the drainage system and the venting system. The drainage portion comprises pipes leading from various fixture drains to the central main, which is connected to the sewage system. The venting system consists of pipes leading from an air inlet (usually on the roof) to various points within the drainage system; by providing the circulation of air within the system, it protects the trap seals of fixtures from siphonage and back pressure. sewage system, water pollution, water-supply system.

For more information on plumbing, visit Britannica.com.

[Unix] Term used for shell code, so called because of the prevalence of pipelines that feed the output of one program to the input of another. Under Unix, user utilities can often be implemented or at least prototyped by a suitable collection of pipelines and temp-file grinding encapsulated in a shell script; this is much less effort than writing C every time, and the capability is considered one of Unix's major winning features. A few other OSs such as IBM's VM/CMS support similar facilities. Esp.: used in the construction hairy plumbing (see hairy). “You can kluge together a basic spell-checker out of sort(1), comm(1), and tr(1) with a little plumbing.” See also tee.

1. See plumbing system.
2. The work or business of installing in buildings the pipes, fixtures, and other apparatus for bringing in the water supply and removing liquid and waterborne wastes.

Plumbing is the system that supplies, distributes, uses, and removes water from a building. Among the components used in the system are pipes, fittings, sinks, basins, faucets, valves, drains, toilets, and tubs. In colonial America, water used for cleaning or cooking was typically brought into a building by bucket and the wastewater was later removed in the same way. Elimination, for the most part, tended to take place out-side in a privy or outhouse. Although there were rare isolated examples of indoor toilets and running water based on or using English and European technology, it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that there were an appreciable number of plumbing installations. For many households they amounted to nothing more than a hand pump and kitchen sink. For a far smaller number it also might be hot and cold running water and what early on became known as the bathroom. During the 1840s and 1850s, the major elements of the bath were in place and consisted simply of a water closet or toilet and a "bathtub." Light washing still took place at the bedroom wash-stand with its basin, water pitcher, and slop jar or bucket. It was not until the 1860s that these items began to be replaced gradually by basins, faucets, and running water installed in the bathroom.

The Evolution of Bathroom Fixtures

Those who attempted to bring plumbing indoors faced technical as well as attitudinal challenges. Decisions on how wastewater was removed required as much concern as those made to ensure an adequate water supply. But equally vexing was the prevailing miasma theory of disease, which held that illnesses stemmed from "bad air" that was readily identifiable by its offensive odor. This led to a distrust of early indoor plumbing that tended to leak and a deadly fear of the sewer gas that accompanied the leaks. It is no wonder then that many individuals maintained a strong belief that elimination was best taken care of out of doors.

Of the components that were part of plumbing, the development of a reliable and trouble-free water closet posed the most problems. A number had been invented by the middle of the nineteenth century, but all had shortcomings. The most common complaints were that they were troublesome to flush and were easily clogged. Perhaps the most offensive of the lot was the pan water closet. It was so named for the waste-collecting sheet metal pan that was designed to close off and seal the bottom of the closet bowl. When the unit was flushed the pan tipped aside, opening the drain at the same time water rinsed the bowl and the pan. The operating mechanism was intricate and because of its location easily became fouled; it also required regular attention. The most serious deficiency common to nearly all toilets of the time was the poor seal they provided between the bathroom and the soil pipe that carried away waste.

The introduction of the first water-retaining traps or seals in the 1850s, and the common use of "U"-shaped traps in the 1870s, were major steps forward. The design of the trap ensured that enough water remained in it to effectively block the passage of sewer gas back through the plumbing fixtures. During the 1870s vent pipes were introduced. They not only carried sewer gas out of the system, but also broke the suction created by movement of liquid in the pipes and eliminated the possibility of siphoning water that sealed the traps.

One of the most important improvements was the development of the siphon toilet, patented in 1890. This greatly simplified yet highly efficient glazed earthenware toilet had no moving parts to get out of order and flushed perfectly every time. Its operation, a combination of a slight vacuum created by siphonic action and a large volume of water, made it self-cleansing. Furthermore, the possibility of leaking sewer gas was eliminated by its interior design. Water that remained in it after flushing provided a perfect seal between the bathroom and the sewer.

The Securing and Disposing of Water

Several of the nation's larger cities were providing water to their residents during the first decade of the nineteenth century, but only infrequently was water actually brought into homes. City-provided water was used in large part to fight fires and flush streets. Household water was most likely taken from a tap located outside of the house or a common hydrant. For those not connected to city mains, and even some who were, there were still other ways to obtain water. If a stream was not near by, there was rain runoff from a roof. It could be collected in one or more tanks located in out-of-the-way places in a house and feed the plumbing system through gravity.

Types of Pipe

Several types of pipe were used during the nineteenth century. With little or no knowledge of its possible long-term harmful effects, lead pipe was widely used. Its low price and the ease with which it could be formed and joined made it the material of choice for many installations. Iron, brass, and copper pipe were used as well. It was not unusual for a structure to be plumbed with several types of pipe, each used where it was most suited. But by the early twentieth century there was a move away from lead piping. The basic elements of domestic plumbing, in both the kitchen and bathroom, were in place by the 1890s. Changes since that time have been primarily aesthetic and in the materials used. During the second half of the twentieth century, tubs and basins that previously had been made of glazed ceramic or enameled iron, and much of the pipe manufactured in the United States as well, were being made of plastic.

Plumbing—from fixtures to vent pipes—in high-rise buildings and skyscrapers duplicated that used in other structures, but with the addition of several unique features. As gravity-fed city mains generally lift water no more than five or six stories, electrically operated pumps raise it to elevated storage tanks beyond that point. Water levels in the tanks are maintained automatically. Water is supplied from them throughout the structure by gravity, air pressure, or booster pumps. Likewise, gravity removes waste water by way of drainage pipes.

Beginning in the 1950s plastic pipe, most notably that made of polyvinyl chloride, has been used in ever increasing amounts. In the following decades, other plastics were introduced into pipe manufacture. However, by the last years of the century a number of plastic-pipe failures had occurred. Problems were attributed to defective manufacture and, in some cases, a chemical reaction taking place between the material used to make the pipe and chlorine in the water that it carried. These events led to class action lawsuits and a general reevaluation of the use of this inexpensive and easily worked alternative piping material.

Federal Regulation

Where plumbing had been a mostly locally regulated matter for most of its history, the federal government became involved in the early 1990s. Until the 1950s, toilets generally used five or more gallons per flush (GPF). During the decades that followed, the plumbing industry reduced the standard volume for toilet flush tanks to 3.5 gallons. A further reduction in volume resulted from the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which in the name of conservation mandated that all new toilets made in the United States must use no more than 1.6 GPF. The same legislation also regulated the flow in shower heads and faucets. Although the first low-flow toilets proved un-satisfactory and were met with public disapproval, redesigned equipment employing new technology has removed most objections.

Bibliography

Elliott, Cecil D. Technics and Architecture: The Development of Materials and Systems for Buildings. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992.

Ierley, Merritt. The Comforts of Home: The American House and the Evolution of Modern Convenience. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1999.

Ogle, Maureen. All the Modern Conveniences: American Household Plumbing, 1840–1890. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

A conduit of water or of waste, plumbing symbolizes the flow of emotions. If the plumbing is stopped up, the dreamer may need emotional "release."

• Types of Construction - plumbing: installation of water supply, drainage, and sewage system in buildings

It has been suggested that Water pipe be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2012.

A complex arrangement of rigid steel piping and stop valves to regulate flow to various parts of the building

Water and sewage pipes on the exterior of a Jerusalem building built around 1930

Plumbing is the system of pipes and drains installed in a building for the distribution of potable drinking water and the removal of waterborne wastes, and the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures in such systems. A plumber is someone who installs or repairs piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as water heaters. The plumbing industry is a basic and substantial part of every developed economy due to the need for clean water, and proper collection and transport of wastes.^[1] The word "plumbing" comes from the Latin plumbum for lead, as pipes were once made from lead.

Plumbing is usually distinguished from water supply and sewage systems, in that a plumbing system serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings or a city.

Contents 1 History 2 Materials 3 Components 3.1 Sealants 4 Equipment and tools 5 Systems 6 Firestopping 7 Regulation 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Further reading 11 External links

History

See also: Sanitation in ancient Rome and History of plumbing

Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the Roman Baths in Bath, England

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and drainage of wastes, for larger numbers of people. Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B.C.^[2] The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft.

Improvement in plumbing systems was very slow, with virtually no progress made from the time of the Roman system of aqueducts and lead pipes. Plumbing was extremely rare until the growth of modern densely-populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partly purify the water before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings.

The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.^[3]

Materials

It has been suggested that Tap water#Pipe materials be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since March 2012.

Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s.^[3]

Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper,^[4] brass, plastic, or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, lead has not been used in modern water-supply piping since the 1930s in the United States,^[5] although lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986.^[5] Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.^[6][7][8]

The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

Components

See also: Piping and plumbing fittings, Valves, and Plumbing fixtures

Piping being placed for a sink

In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings are used in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices using water that can be connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Sealants

Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.

Equipment and tools

Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, backflow arrestors, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

Systems

Copper piping system in a building with intumescent firestop being installed by an insulator, Vancouver, Canada

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:

• Potable cold and hot tap water supply
• Plumbing drainage venting
• Septic systems
• Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage
• Fuel gas piping

For their environmental benefit and sizable energy savings, hot water heat recycling units are being installed in residential buildings. Ecological concerns and water shortages have increased interest in graywater recovery and treatment systems.

Plumbing may also include hydronics, which involves heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy. The New York City steam system is an example of a large district heating system.

Firestopping

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Does not explain connection to main topic. Please help improve this section if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (March 2012)

Self-levelling silicone firestop installation in mechanical service penetration in 2 hour rated concrete floor

Firestopping is required where mechanical penetrants traverse fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies, or membranes thereof. This work is usually done worldwide by the insulation trade and/or specialty firestop sub-contractors.

Regulation

A pipe wrench for holding and turning pipe.

Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.

In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;^[9] there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC).^[8][10] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.^[8]

See also

This "see also" section may contain an excessive number of suggestions. Please ensure that only the most relevant suggestions are given and that they are not red links, and consider integrating suggestions into the article itself. (October 2011)

• Active fire protection
• Coupling (piping)
• Double-walled pipe
• Elbow (piping)
• Heat pipe
• Nipple (plumbing)
• Passive fire protection
• Pipe cap
• Pipe fitting
• Piping
• Piping and plumbing fittings
• Plastic pipework
• Plumbing & Drainage Institute
• Street elbow
• Trap (plumbing)
• Trap primer
• Union (plumbing)
• Valve
• Victaulic
• Water pipe

Notes

1. ^ Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization, Modern Marvels video series, The History Channel, AAE-42223, A&E Television, 1996
2. ^ Teresi et al. 2002
3. ^ ^{a b} Kavanaugh, Sean. "History of Plumbing Pipe and Plumbing Material". http://www.hihut.com/history-of-plumbing-pipe-and-plumbing-material.html. 
4. ^ Copper Tube Handbook, the Copper Development Association, New York, USA, 2006
5. ^ ^{a b} Macek, MD.; Matte, TD.; Sinks, T.; Malvitz, DM. (Jan 2006). "Blood lead concentrations in children and method of water fluoridation in the United States, 1988-1994.". Environ Health Perspect 114 (1): 130–4. doi:10.1289/ehp.8319. PMC 1332668. PMID 16393670. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1332668. 
6. ^ Uniform Plumbing Code, IAPMO
7. ^ International Plumbing Code, ICC
8. ^ ^{a b c} "Lead Pipe History". http://www.plumbingforums.com/forum/f2/lead-pipes-144/. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
9. ^ "Home =CIPHE". http://www.CIPHE.org.uk. Retrieved 2009-10-11. 
10. ^ "WHO Health aspects of plumbing". http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/plumbinghealthasp/en. Retrieved 2009-10-11. 

Further reading

• Teresi, Dick; et al. (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science--from the Babylonians to the Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 351–352. ISBN 0-684-83718-8. 

External links

• The Wiktionary entry for plumbing
• Quotations related to Plumbing at Wikiquote
• Plumbing at Wikibooks
• ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Lead Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - blikkenslagerarbejde, lodning

Nederlands (Dutch)
loodgieterswerk, sanitair, pijpen, loodgieterswerk doen

Français (French)
n. - plomberie, sanitaire

Deutsch (German)
n. - Klempnerarbeiten, Rohre, Leitungen, Loten

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - υδραυλική τέχνη, υδραυλικές εργασίες ή εγκαταστάσεις, υδραυλικά, σωληνώσεις

Italiano (Italian)
piombatura

Português (Portuguese)
n. - encanamento (m)

Русский (Russian)
слесарно-во- допроводные работы

Español (Spanish)
n. - instalación sanitaria, tuberías, fontanería

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - rörsystem, rörarbete, sanitära anläggningar

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
铅工业, 铅管品制造

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 鉛工業, 鉛管品製造

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 납공사, 수도관 부설

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 配管工事, 配管

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) مص, عمل الرصاص أو السمكري, أنابيب المياه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮שרברבות, צנרת הביוב, רשת צינורות-המים‬

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