robotics

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A field of engineering concerned with the development and application of robots, and computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing. The many types of robotic systems include robotic manipulators, robotic hands, mobile robots, walking robots, aids for disabled persons, telerobots, and microelectromechanical systems.

The term “robotics” has been broadly interpreted. It includes research and engineering activities involving the design and development of robotic systems. Planning for the use of industrial robots in manufacturing or evaluation of the economic impact of robotic automation can also be viewed as robotics. This breadth of usage arises from the interdisciplinary nature of robotics, a field involving mechanisms, computers, control systems, actuators, and software. See also Biomechanics; Computer; Control systems; Cybernetics; Electrical engineering; Industrial engineering; Mechanical engineering; Software engineering.

Robots produce mechanical motion that, in most cases, results in manipulation or locomotion. Mechanical characteristics for robotic mechanisms include degrees of freedom of movement, size and shape of the operating space, stiffness and strength of the structure, lifting capacity, velocity, and acceleration under load. Performance measures include repeatability and accuracy of positioning, speed, and freedom from vibration.

A robot control system directs the motion and sensory processing of a robot or system of cooperating robots. The controller may consist of only a sequencing device for simple robots, although most multiaxis industrial robots today employ servo-controlled positioning of their joints by a microprocessor-based system.

The robot sensory system gathers specific information needed by the control system and, in more advanced systems, maintains an internal model of the environment to enable prediction and decision making. The joint position transducers on industrial robots provide a minimal sensory system for many industrial applications, but other sensors are needed to gather data about the external environment. Sensors may detect position, velocity, acceleration, visual, proximity, acoustic, force-torque, tactile, thermal, and radiation data.

As information moves up from the sensory device, the amount of information increases and the speed of data acquisition decreases. These control architectures form the basis for computer integrated manufacturing (CIM), a hierarchical approach to organizing automated factories. A new paradigm has emerged, based on the interconnection of intelligent system elements that can learn, reason, and modify their configuration to satisfy overall system requirements. One of the most important of these approaches is based on holonic systems. See also Automation; Computer-integrated manufacturing; Intelligent machine.

A telerobotic system augments humans by allowing them to extend their ability to perform complex tasks in remote locations. It is a technology that couples the human operator's visual, tactile, and other sensory perception functions with a remote manipulator or mobile robot. These systems are useful for performing tasks in environments that are dangerous or not easily accessible for humans. Telerobotic systems are used in nuclear handling, maintenance in space, undersea exploration, and servicing electric transmission lines. Perhaps the most important sensory data needed for telepresence are feedback of visual information, robot position, body motion and forces, as well as tactile information. Master-slave systems have been developed in which, for example, a hand controller provides control inputs to an articulated robotic manipulator. These systems are capable of feeding back forces felt by the robot to actuators on the exoskeletal master controller so that the operator can “feel” the remote environment. See also Human-machine systems; Remote manipulators.

Graphical simulation is used to design and evaluate a workcell layout before it is built. The robot motion can be programmed on the simulation and downloaded to the robot controller. Companies market software systems that include libraries of commercially available robots and postprocessors for off-line robot programming. See also Simulation.

The art and science of the creation and use of robots and robotic devices. See robot and tape library.

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Science and study of robots; developing applications for robots. See also Robot.

The Robotic Industries Association defines robot as follows: "A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks." Recently, however, the industry's current working definition of a robot has come to be understood as any piece of equipment that has three or more degrees of movement or freedom.

Robotics is an increasingly visible and important component of modern business, especially in certain industries. Robotics-oriented production processes are most obvious in factories and manufacturing facilities; in fact, approximately 90 percent of all robots in operation today can be found in such facilities. These robots, termed "industrial robots," were found almost exclusively in automobile manufacturing plants as little as 15 to 20 years ago. But industrial robots are now being used in laboratories, research and development facilities, warehouses, hospitals, energy-oriented industries (petroleum, nuclear power, etc.), and other areas.

The costs associated with establishing manufacturing processes that rely on industrial robots initially limited the number of companies that were able to fully employ robotics. Despite the cost, however, the Handbook of Industrial Robotics reported that the population of robots in North America nearly doubled between 1990 and 2000. In addition, the world robot population was expected to grow from 677,000 in 1996 to an estimated 950,000 in 2000. Many business experts expect that, as robotics technology develops and implementation costs drop, smaller companies will increasingly be able to make use of robotics in their production processes.

Robotics Technology

Today's robotics systems operate by way of hydraulic, pneumatic, and electrical power. Electric motors have become progressively smaller, with high power-to-weight ratios, enabling them to become the dominant means by which robots are powered.

Robots are, of course, comprised of several different elements, depending on their purpose. The hand of a robot, for instance, is referred to in the industry as an "end effector." End effectors may be specialized tools, such as spot welders or spray guns, or more general-purpose grippers. Common grippers include fingered and vacuum types. Another central element of robotics control technology is the sensor. It is through sensors that a robotic system receives knowledge of its environment, to which subsequent actions of the robot can be adjusted. Sensors are used to enable a robot to adjust to variations in the position of objects to be picked up, to inspect objects, and to monitor proper operation (although some robots are able to adjust to variations in object placement without the use of sensors, provided they have sufficient end effector flexibility). Important sensor types include visual, force and torque, speed and acceleration, tactile, and distance sensors. The majority of industrial robots use simple binary sensing, analogous to an on/off switch. This does not permit sophisticated feedback to the robot as to how successfully an operation was performed. Lack of adequate feedback also often requires the use of guides and fixtures to constrain the motions of a robot through an operation, which implies substantial inflexibility in changing operations.

Robots are programmed either by guiding or by off-line programming. Most industrial robots are programmed by the former method. This involves manually guiding a robot from point to point through the phases of an operation, with each point stored in the robotic control system. With off-line programming, the points of an operation are defined through computer commands. This is referred to as manipulator level off-line programming. An important area of research is the development of off-line programming that makes use of higher-level languages, in which robotic actions are defined by tasks or objectives.

Robots may be programmed to move through a specified continuous path instead of from point to point. Continuous path control is necessary for operations such as spray painting or arc welding a curved joint. Programming also requires that a robot be synchronized with the automated machine tools or other robots with which it is working. Thus robot control systems are generally interfaced with a more centralized control system.

Common Uses of Robotics

Industrial robotics have emerged as a popular manufacturing methodology in several areas in recent years, including welding, materials transport, assembly, and spray finishing operations.

SPOT AND ELECTRIC ARC WELDING. Welding guns are heavy and the speed of assembly lines requires precise movement, thus creating an ideal niche for robotics. Parts can be welded either through the movement of the robot or by keeping the robot relatively stationary and moving the part past the robot. The latter method has come into widespread use since it generally requires less expensive conveyor systems. The control system of the robot must synchronize the robot with the speed of the assembly line and with other robots working on the line. Control systems may also count the number of welds completed and derive productivity data.

PICK AND PLACE OPERATIONS. Industrial robots also perform what are referred to as pick and place operations. Among the most common of these operations is loading and unloading pallets, used across a broad range of industries. This requires relatively complex programming, as the robot must sense how full a pallet is and adjust its placements or removals accordingly. Robots have been vital in pick and place operations in the casting of metals and plastics. In the die casting of metals, for instance, productivity using the same die-casting machinery has increased up to three times, the result of robots' greater speed, strength, and ability to withstand heat in parts removal operations.

ASSEMBLY. Assembly is one of the most demanding operations for industrial robots. A number of conditions must be met for robotic assembly to be viable, among them that the overall production system be highly coordinated and that the product be designed with robotic assembly in mind. The sophistication of the control system required implies a large initial capital outlay, which generally requires production of 100,000 to one million units per year in order to be profitable. Robotic assembly has come to be used in the production of a wide range of goods, including circuit boards, electronic components and equipment, household appliances, and automotive subassemblies.

SPRAY FINISHING OPERATIONS. Industrial robots are widely used in spray finishing operations, particularly in the automobile industry. One of the reasons these operations are cost-effective is that they minimize the need for environmental control to protect workers from fumes.

Robots are also used for quality control inspections, since they can be programmed to quantitatively measure various aspects of a product's creation. In addition, the use of robots in environmental applications, such as the cleaning of contaminated sites and the handling and analysis of hazardous materials, represents an important growth market for robotics producers. Non-industrial applications for robots in security, commercial cleaning, food service, and health care are also on the rise.

Future of Robotics

Recent research and development has addressed a number of aspects of robotics. Robotic hands have been developed which offer greater dexterity and flexibility, and improvements have been made in visual sensors as well (earlier generations of visual sensors were designed for use with television and home video, and did not process information quickly for optimal performance in many robotics applications; as a consequence, solid-state vision sensors came into increased use, and developments were also made with fiber optics). The use of superconducting materials, meanwhile, offers the possibility of substantial improvements in the electric motors that drive robotic arms. Attempts have also been made to develop lighter robotic arms and increase their rigidity. Standardization of software and hardware to facilitate the centralization of control systems has also been an important area of development in recent years. Indeed, "robots are simply more programmable and flexible than ever before," wrote Tooling and Production contributor Katina Z. Jones. "Multiple cells can be more easily accommodated and cybernetic gadgetry such as virtual reality and computer simulation have added a new dimension to the sales and installation of robotics." Finally, the processing speed of robotic brains was expected to increase from 10 MIPS in 2000 to 1,000 MIPS by 2003.

Further Reading:

"Accuracy is Only Relative on Robotics, Automation." Tooling & Production. November 1996.

Alkhafaji, Abbas F. "Strategic Applications of Robotics Technology." Management Decision. July 1991.

Anthes, Gary H. "The Robots Are Coming!" Computerworld. May 22, 2000.

Bergstrom, Robin P. "Common Sense and Robot Use." Production. February 1993.

Donleavy, G. D. "Evaluating the Potential of Office Robotics." Long Range Planning. April 1994.

"The Droid Void Is Ending." Ward's Auto World. January 1994.

Jones, Katina Z. "Robots Serve Up New Directions." Tooling & Production. April 1995.

Nof, Shimon, ed. Handbook of Industrial Robotics. Chicago: Wiley, 1999. "Robots on the Rise." IIE Solutions. March 2000.

Taylor, P. M. Understanding Robotics. CRC Press, 1990.

See also: Automation

Several centuries ago, people envisioned and created mechanical automata. The development of digital computers, transistors, integrated circuits, and miniaturized components during the mid-to late twentieth century enabled electrical robots to be designed and programmed. Robotics is the use of programmable machines that gather information about their environment, interpret instructions, and perform repetitive, time-intensive, or physically demanding tasks as a substitute for human labor. Few Americans interact closely with robotics but many indirectly benefit from the use of industrial robotics.

American engineers at universities, industries, and government agencies have led advancements in robotic innovations. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Artificial Intelligence Research Laboratory Director Rodney A. Brooks stated that by 2020 robots would have human qualities of consciousness. His robot, Genghis, was built with pyroelectric sensors on its six legs. Interacting with motors, the sensors detected infrared radiation such as body heat, causing Genghis to move toward or away from that stimulus and to appear to be acting in a predatory way. Interested in the role of vision, Brooks devised robots to move through cluttered areas. He programmed his robots to look for clear routes instead of dealing with obstructions.

Because they are small, maneuverable, and invulnerable to smoke and toxins, robots are used during disaster recovery and to defuse explosives and detect radiation. After the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, robots entered the World Trade Center rubble in search of victims and to transmit video images to rescuers. Robotic sensors are sensitive to ultrasonic waves, magnetic fields, and gases undetectable to humans. Some robots are used for airport security screening of luggage. Military robotic applications include the prototype robotic plane, the X-45, which was introduced in 2002 for combat service. Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) flying insect robots were programmed to conduct military reconnaissance, filming enemy sites.

Other uses of robotics include robotic surgical tools inserted through small incisions. These robotics are steadier and more precise than humans. Engineers have devised ways for robots to have tactile abilities to palpate tissues undergoing surgery with pressure sensors.

The space shuttle is equipped with a robotic arm to retrieve and deploy satellites. The International Space Station (ISS) utilizes a 58-foot robotic arm for construction. The robotic Skyworker was developed to maintain the completed ISS. Engineers envisioned a future robotic space shuttle. The Sojourner robotic rover traversed Mars in 1997, and later missions prepared more sophisticated robots to send to that planet.

People have controlled telerobotics via the Internet. The iRobot-LE moves according to remote controls, enabling observers to monitor their homes with their work computers. Engineers have programmed robotic lawn-mowers and vacuum cleaners. Robotic toys such as Sony's companionable AIBO dog have appealed to consumers. Inspired by RoboCup robotic soccer matches, enthusiasts have planned to develop humanoid robots to compete against human teams.

As computer processors have become faster and more powerful, robotics has advanced. Some researchers have investigated biorobotics, combining biological and engineering knowledge to explore animals' cognitive functions. Evolutionary robotics has studied autonomous robots being automatically refined based on performance fulfillment and evidence of desired skills and traits.

Researchers have programmed robots to master numerous tasks, make decisions, and perform more efficiently. Engineers, such as those working on the Honda Humanoid Project, have aspired to create universal robots, which have similar movement, versatility, and intelligence as humans. Hans Moravec, director of the Mobile Robot Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University, hypothesized that robots will attain the equivalent of human intelligence by 2040.

Bibliography

Brooks, Rodney A. Flesh and Machines: How Robots Will Change Us. New York: Pantheon Books, 2002.

Dorigo, Marco, and Marco Colombetti. Robot Shaping : An Experiment in Behavior Engineering. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998.

Goldberg, Ken, ed. The Robot in the Garden: Telerobotics and Telepistemology in the Age of the Internet. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000.

———, and Roland Siegwart, eds. Beyond Webcams: An Introduction to Online Robots. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002.

Menzel, Peter, and Faith D'Aluisio. Robo Sapiens: Evolution of a New Species. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000.

Moravec, Hans P. Robot: Mere Machine to Transcendent Mind. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Nolfi, Stefano, and Dario Floreano. Evolutionary Robotics: The Biology, Intelligence, and Technology of Self-Organizing Machines. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000.

Rosheim, Mark E. Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics. New York: Wiley, 1994.

Schraft, Rolf-Dieter, and Gernot Schmierer. Service Robots. Na-tick, Mass.: A. K. Peters, 2000.

Webb, Barbara, and Thomas R. Consi, eds. Biorobotics: Methods and Applications. Menlo Park, Calif.: AAAI Press/MIT Press, 2001.

Dansk (Danish)
n. - robotik

Nederlands (Dutch)
automatiserings- techniek

Français (French)
n. - robotique

Deutsch (German)
n. - Robotertechnik, Robotik

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. pl. - ρομποτική

Italiano (Italian)
robotica

Português (Portuguese)
n. pl. - robótica (f)

Русский (Russian)
роботостроение, робототехника

Español (Spanish)
n. - robótica

Svenska (Swedish)
n. pl. - automatiserade funktioner

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
机器人学

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. pl. - 機器人學
n. - 機器人學

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 로봇 공학

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - ロボット工学

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الجمع) الأشياء الآليه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮רובוטיקה‬

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