Generally you can use short quotes with attribution without even asking for permission.
If the photo is altered for comedic effect, it may be used under the copyright exceptions for satire. However, no alteration can remove the copyright from a photo.
You would need permission from the copyright holder of the photos, which is not necessarily the copyright holder of the book. There should be photo credits near the photos or in a separate index; contact the rightsholders in writing, being specific about what you want to do.
If you want to use a photograph that is not in the public domain, and you do not own the copyright yourself, you must obtain the permission of the copyright holder. You do not need to buy the copyright itself. More often, you will simply obtain a license to use the copyright for your purpose, usually requiring payment of a royalty to the copyright owner. Some copyright owners have licensed their photos under licenses such as some of those of Creative Commons, which may enable people to use the photo without payment. If the photograph is in the public domain, you may use the photo freely. A photo may be in the public domain for many reasons, such as expiration of a copyright or intentional release of copyright.
Copyright exists as soon as the book is finished and it is not necessary to formally register with the US copyright office before publication.
I'm sure there is a book of Plato quotes and if there isn't there will be resources online and in the library that can satisfy this need. Quotes are easily available.
The copyright usually is located at the back of the first page or the front cover of the book.
Copyright is automatic as soon as the work is fixed in a tangible medium. If you need a license to copy a book, request it from the publisher in writing.
Not necessarily. You need to make sure the copyright on the book has expired.
You would need at least a photo credit, but a full copyright notification would be better; for an academic paper, a complete citation may be required.
No, you do not. If you reproduce large portions of the book (as opposed to selective quotes to, for example, demonstrate the author's style, which is considered a "fair use" of copyrighted work) as part of your review, however, you will likely be violating copyright law.
you need a book and material
Textual stability is when you have quotes in a piece of writing to support the idea being explained. For example if you are writing an essay on a book then you will need to have quotes from that book to support your answer. Hope this helped =)