How did Thomas Kuhn define normal science?

Why would scientific investigations lead to new investigations?

One reason is because the processes of science have no stages or components that assure beyond any possible doubt, past, present or in the future, that a given theory or 'law' is no longer falsifiable. Every investigation, even ones that support the tested theory, tell us something we didn't know before, and that something is falsifiable and therefore testable.Another way of saying essentially the same thing is that even if the mathematics of a theory or 'law' is working in the operational sense, that doesn't mean that our conceptual understanding of the thing, based on the known math, is anywhere close to reality. More investigations based on our conceptual understanding or a new conceptual understanding may reveal something as yet unknown, or topple a long cherished belief.Another aspect of the new investigations question is that once the basic theories of a thing are in place, there may be many details to fill in. The periodic chart is an example; once the orderliness of it became clear, it was no longer surprising or groundbreaking when elements were discovered that filled missing slots. That is not to say that this work is any less important, obviously. This is what Thomas Kuhn calls normal science.

What is the impact of Newton?

This is copy of answer to "What were all the things Newton discovered". It provides a relevant answer to the question. Please feel free to reduce, add and modify. Newton developed the theory of universal gravitation and the fundamental laws of motion which quantified the relationship between force, mass and acceleration. He described the law of conservation of momentum and developed the kinematic equations that calculate trajectory. He also made advances in optics, developing the first practical telescope. Through observations from experiments in spectroscopy, he developed the first theory of color. He contributed to major advances in mathematics, co-developing the calculus and the binomial theorem. Sir Isaac Newton (knighted by queen in 1705, although purely electical for parliament reasons, Newton's knighthood had little or nothing to do with his science or service of the royal mint) made many extrordinarily and ground breaking discoveries and inventions in both physics and mathematics and in what is today called astronomy (really a part of physics), to say the least. It is very difficult to even try to describe the true enormous scope and crucial importance of his work in both theory and experiments, to modern science. Suffice it to say, if Einstein's achievements is worth 50 lines of text, Newton is worth 200 or more. Isaac Newton is generally regarded in scientific community to be the single most important and influential mathematician and theoretical as well as experimental physicist of all time, a view shared by Einstein himself. What scienticst or mathematician ever after Newton would even be close to such an honour, as the ways of modern mathematics and physics draw apart and becomes superbly specialized? Isaac Newton was a deeply religious christian man, but with a personal secret belief considered heretic at his time (as Martin Luther was, no further comparison being made as Newton's Christian belief was very different from both Luther and the Pope and the Church of England). Newton's life, his achievements, his successes, his failures, his controversies, his shortcomings must all be considered in view of that single most important fact of him being a secret religious heretic. Isaac Newton was very interested in Gnosticism, and he did not believe in the trinity, he considered it a blasphemy. Some claims have even emerged he earned his scientific results from his studies of ancient lore from gnostic sources. (Even if that was the case, he should be honoured very much for rediscovering knowledge lost to the conscious and living world). These claims are to date totally unsubstantiated, and are not to be considered serious at all, as the level of Newton's scientific work and results far surpasses anything found in these kind of ancient scripts. Newton's own developed mathematics is rivaled by none in our known past or his present. Rather, it is believed Newton's interest for Gnosticism is connected to his deep interest for alchemy. It should be remembered religion was a completely different matter in Newton's time of history than what is the case in modern western society of today and at Newton's time it could easily mean personal ruin and disaster. One fact that makes Newton stand out from both his contemporaries and phycisists of today, is his outstanding abilities and outright genious in mathematics: He was able to invent and develop the unknown mathematical tools necessary to tie the concepts of "force" and "acceleration", an achievement honoured today as the SI-unit of force is called "newton". In fact Newton did clarify and partially also invent the concepts of force and acceleration in aftermath of Galileo, which is a further tribute to Newton's scientifc mind. Newton did calculate the effects of gravitational force and develop a "near correct" (up to relativity) mathematical theory for gravitation. Though Newton leant heavily on the works, efforts and astronomical observations from Johannes Kepler, Newton's achivement on his universal theory of gravity is a feat not compared by any other scientist of history, though recent historical research seems to indicate Archimedes was familiar with some of the ideas of calculus 2000 years earlier, but this has not been proven beyond dispute yet. Anyway, calculus remained unknown to the public until the mathematical framework developed by Newton and Leibniz in the late 1600 hundreds, though it should be said they built their ideas on advances made by earlier mathematicians and philosophers. In todays view of science, what makes Newton stand out from all other scientists apart from his ground breaking scientific discoveries, is his mastery of both mathematics and physics, him inventing the mathematical language of calculus when he needed it to develop his theory of gravity, a theory which survived and withstood all experimental and empirical tests and remained unchallenged until Einsteins theory of relativity 250 years later. The same can be said about Newtons's theory of force, motion, acceleration and momentum, which all together provide the foundation for his theory of gravity, his theory of gravity only needing the additional concept of "force acting at a distance" to proceed from his theories of force and momentum. The concept of "force acting at a distance" was a giant leap in the history of physics and Newton did it himself. The concept of the medium of the ether through which the force could act through, followed, a concept that survived unchallenged for as long as Newton's theories remained uncorrected until Einstein proved the ether superfluent and unnecessary 250 years later, yielding only space and emptiness as the alternative. Still, Maxwells equations for the electromagnetic fields as well as Newton's theories remained, though they must be corrected for relativity according to Einstein, though there are deeper aspects of Einstein's theories of time and space not compatible with Newton's laws of motion, and gravity. This is as should be, since Einstein's theory is 250 years later, and Maxwells theory 150 years after Newton. It should be emphasized that Isaac Newton, "despite" his unchallenged genious in both mathematics as well as theoretical science, was also a genious experimentalist definitely belonging in the ranks of the utmost greatest experimentalists of all time of science: His design and implementation of the mirror telescope (his invention being honored even today by astronomers both professional and amateur as the "Newtonian telescope") and his ingeniously designed experiments with light are highlights of his career as experimental physicist. Isaac Newton was a many-sided person: He was a mystic, an alchemist (and in that respect he was also a chemist, albeit a very immature and naive one in view of modern chemistry) and occultist, he was a secret religious heretic of his time and a loner, preferring to keep his mathematical discoveries to himself, as he was never able to handle criticism well, and this caused the bitter fight between him and Leibniz as to whom should be credited with the invention of calculus. Historical research suggests that they both developed calculus independently of each other, though Newton was some years earlier, but he did not publish his results in full until far later. This lead to many personal difficulties in his scientific career but he was able (by help of influential friends) to survive his times and not have to bring his innermost religious beliefs into public, even rising to the post of master of the royal mint, a position very much not compatible at that time of history with his personal religious beliefs. His most important discoveries in physics are his theory of light, colors and refraction, his theory of force, momentum and motion and his gravitational theory, all of which are still taught at highschools and universities today for undergraduates in physics. In mathematics his inventions are too many to report shortly, but apart from his invention of calculus, he contributed greatly to the theory of series and partial sums, Diophantine equations and numerical analysis, all of which today are basic material which any undergraduate mathematician has to learn. Isaac Newton was on occasions challenged by mathematicians on the continent on difficult mathematical problems, correspondence by letter. Newton always answered correctly, as is illustrated by the famous problem of the "sliding bean" proposed by Poisson to Isaac Newton: Poisson very satisfied with himself having found the solution to the extremely difficult problem of fastest path of travel between two fixed points in a gravity field, challenged Newton anonymously in a letter to a mathematical journal by presenting the problem, knowing Newton would read it. This is a famous story on Isaac Newton's superb mathematical abilities, after not working in mathematics for decades, Newton being at the time mostly occupied by his own research in alchemy, he solved it during 24 hours (as reported by his servant he did not eat or sleep until he completed his answer), and presented his (correct) solution equally anonymously by letter to the journal, upon which Poisson is reported to have said: "I guess I know the lion by its claws"...Isaac Newton is generally and undisputedly regarded as the greatest and most influential mathematician of all time and also the greatest and most influential physicist of all time, possibly in the field of physics only challenged for originality by Einstein, and influence by Aristotle. In the field of mathematics, Newton is rivaled by none and challenged by none in current known history of science. A note on the controversy between modern students of science on "Who was the the greatest of Newton and Einstein", it should be said Einstein did not have to invent any new mathematical formal apparatus to formulate his groundbreaking theories, whereas Newton himself had to invent the mathematical language of calculus to formulate, develop and support his theory of gravity, a theory which was in itself in any sense as ground breaking as any of Einstein's work and theories, and likely even much more so because in Isaac Newton's time of history, it was still not commonly accepted that the same laws guide the heavens as on the earth, not to mention the concept of force "acting at a distance with no seemingly physical contact", an idea Newton came up with, which broke with all of Aristotelian physics and 2000 years of tradition. Newton did this, according to Thomas Kuhn, total shift in scientific paradigm, and he should be credited for it at least as much as all of Einstein's works and ground breaking theories. Even more so, because Isaac Newton's shift of scientific paradigm was supported in (his own) new groundbreaking developed mathematics, whereas Einsteins theories were not groundbreaking in any mathematical sense. Newtons theories and experimentally verified laws of nature were not only groundbreaking, they were completely mind-shattering to the scientific society of his time, which was still partly influenced by 2000 year old Aristotelian physics. The language and power and all-embracing importance and influence of Isaac Newton's calculus to modern science should be well known to any undergraduate student of science today, be it physics, chemistry or biology...Calculus may indeed by itself be considered one of the greatest and most crucial leaps of human mind in all history and Newton did it. A look into his mathematical texts of proofs for his calculus, shows a mind which very few if any human of today, are able to follow, but they have been verified to be correct....In short: Newton was both a genious mathematician and physicist in both theory and experiment, whereas Einstein being a genious theoretical physicist, did not make any worthwhile discoveries in mathematics, apart from some convenient notational conventions, and he was not an experimentalist at all, whereas Isaac Newton marvels in the field of experimental physics and is undisputedly one of the greatest experimentalists of history of physics and he was able to backup his own claims, he did verify his theory of gravity by data on the moons orbit, whereas Einstein had other people back up his theories with experimental tests, like Eddingtons famous experiment on relativity. Many people make the mistake of comparing Newton and Einstein "out of their times", confusing the time of Einstein's modern and abstract mathematics and physics with all its impressive and well-developed notation through centuries of development of mathematicians and physicists after Newton with what is the true core of the mind-leap of Newton's calculus and the true rigidness and clearness of Newtonian laws of physics compared to the Aristotle ideas (which Galileo proved wrong well before Newton). Suffice it to say, place Newton the genious mathematician and theoreticial physicist and genious experimentalist against Einstein the genious theoretician at a table at "scratch" where nothing is known about universe, and see who would proceed the faster...In view of both mens careers and their proven abilities there cannot be any doubt as to whom would win this kind of race, a fact also Einstein was happy to recognize many times in his life. Anyway, it remains the fact that Newton's theories remained unchallenged for 250 years, whereas Einstein's theory of relativity has remained unchallenged for less than a 100 years at time of this writing...If not the above listed facts on the achievements of Newton versus Einstein do impress, this single fact of time should, because history is the closest thing to truth we will ever have. It should be said historical research continues to discover and reveal facts about Iscaac Newton's life and thoughts even today. Finally, it may seem ironical in view of modern science of today, that most of Isaac Newton's time, efforts and thought and money were dedicated to his research in alchemy, a field of his time which did not make it into science, but nevertheless may be said to be part of the very early and naive probings into the laws of nature of what later turned into the science of chemistry (a field Einstein never touched with his own hands, where as Newton probably died from his long and personal experimental experience with it) ...Isaac Newton's long and utmost serious efforts into alchemy does not reduce Isaac Newton's genious in science at all, rather it adds to it, as it is additional proof that his mind was being bent on ever seeking to uncover the unknowns of Nature (although driven very much by his own religious motives and ideas as most deeply and clearly manifest in his interest for alchemy). Upon his death, his body was found to contain large amounts of mercury, the key element of the lore of alchemy. It is probable his active experimental work into alchemy through several decades lead to his weakened health and ultimately death. Science still waits for a person of his true mathematical genious combined with his deep interest for physics and chemistry, his sound intuition, his patient endurance, his originality, his inventiveness and his outstanding experimental abilities, to appear again.

What were sir Isaacc Newton's discoveries or inventions?

Newton developed the theory of universal gravitation and the fundamental laws of motion which quantified the relationship between force, mass and acceleration. He described the law of conservation of momentum and developed the kinematic equations that calculate trajectory. He also made advances in optics, developing the first practical telescope. Through observations from experiments in spectroscopy, he developed the first theory of color. He contributed to major advances in mathematics, co-developing the calculus and the binomial theorem. Sir Isaac Newton (knighted by queen in 1705, although purely electical for parliament reasons, Newton's knighthood had little or nothing to do with his science or service of the royal mint) made many extrordinarily and ground breaking discoveries and inventions in both physics and mathematics and in what is today called astronomy (really a part of physics), to say the least. It is very difficult to even try to describe the true enormous scope and crucial importance of his work in both theory and experiments, to modern science. Suffice it to say, if Einstein's achievements is worth 50 lines of text, Newton is worth 200 or more. Isaac Newton is generally regarded in scientific community to be the single most important and influential mathematician and theoretical as well as experimental physicist of all time, a view shared by Einstein himself. What scienticst or mathematician ever after Newton would even be close to such an honour, as the ways of modern mathematics and physics draw apart and becomes superbly specialized? Isaac Newton was a deeply religious christian man, but with a personal secret belief considered heretic at his time (as Martin Luther was, no further comparison being made as Newton's Christian belief was very different from both Luther and the Pope and the Church of England). Newton's life, his achievements, his successes, his failures, his controversies, his shortcomings must all be considered in view of that single most important fact of him being a secret religious heretic. Isaac Newton was very interested in Gnosticism, and he did not believe in the trinity, he considered it a blasphemy. Some claims have even emerged he earned his scientific results from his studies of ancient lore from gnostic sources. (Even if that was the case, he should be honoured very much for rediscovering knowledge lost to the conscious and living world). These claims are to date totally unsubstantiated, and are not to be considered serious at all, as the level of Newton's scientific work and results far surpasses anything found in these kind of ancient scripts. Newton's own developed mathematics is rivaled by none in our known past or his present. Rather, it is believed Newton's interest for Gnosticism is connected to his deep interest for alchemy. It should be remembered religion was a completely different matter in Newton's time of history than what is the case in modern western society of today and at Newton's time it could easily mean personal ruin and disaster. One fact that makes Newton stand out from both his contemporaries and phycisists of today, is his outstanding abilities and outright genious in mathematics: He was able to invent and develop the unknown mathematical tools necessary to tie the concepts of "force" and "acceleration", an achievement honoured today as the SI-unit of force is called "newton". In fact Newton did clarify and partially also invent the concepts of force and acceleration in aftermath of Galileo, which is a further tribute to Newton's scientifc mind. Newton did calculate the effects of gravitational force and develop a universial "near correct" (up to relativity) mathematical theory for gravitation. Though Newton leant heavily on the works, efforts and astronomical observations from Johannes Kepler, Newton's achivement on his universal theory of gravity represent a feat not compared by any other scientist of history, though recent historical research seems to indicate Archimedes was familiar with some of the ideas of calculus 2000 years earlier, but this has not been proven beyond dispute yet. Anyway, calculus remained unknown to the public until the mathematical framework developed by Newton and Leibniz in the late 1600 hundreds, though it should be said they built their ideas on advances made by earlier mathematicians and philosophers. In todays view of science, what makes Newton stand out from all other scientists apart from his ground breaking scientific discoveries, is his mastery of both mathematics and physics, him inventing the mathematical language of calculus when he needed it to develop his theory of gravity, a theory which survived and withstood all experimental and empirical tests and remained unchallenged until Einsteins theory of relativity 250 years later. The same can be said about Newtons's theory of force, motion, acceleration and momentum, which all together provide the foundation for his theory of gravity, his theory of gravity only needing the additional concept of "force acting at a distance" to proceed from his theories of force and momentum. The concept of "force acting at a distance" was a giant leap in the history of physics and Newton did it himself. The concept of the medium of the ether through which the force could act through, followed, a concept that survived unchallenged for as long as Newton's theories remained uncorrected until Einstein proved the ether superfluent and unnecessary 250 years later, yielding only space and emptiness as the alternative. Still, Maxwells equations for the electromagnetic fields as well as Newton's theories remained, though they must be corrected for relativity according to Einstein, though there are deeper aspects of Einstein's theories of time and space not compatible with Newton's laws of motion, and gravity. This is as should be, since Einstein's theory is 250 years later, and Maxwells theory 150 years after Newton. It should be emphasized that Isaac Newton, "despite" his unchallenged genious in both mathematics as well as theoretical science, was also a genious experimentalist definitely belonging in the ranks of the utmost greatest experimentalists of all time of science: His design and implementation of the mirror telescope (his invention being honored even today by astronomers both professional and amateur as the "Newtonian telescope") and his ingeniously designed experiments with light are highlights of his career as experimental physicist. Isaac Newton was a many-sided person: He was a mystic, an alchemist (and in that respect he was also a chemist, albeit a very immature and naive one in view of modern chemistry) and occultist, he was a secret religious heretic of his time and a loner, preferring to keep his mathematical discoveries to himself, as he was never able to handle criticism well, and this caused the bitter fight between him and Leibniz as to whom should be credited with the invention of calculus. Historical research suggests that they both developed calculus independently of each other, though Newton was some years earlier, but he did not publish his results in full until far later. This lead to many personal difficulties in his scientific career but he was able (by help of influential friends) to survive his times and not have to bring his innermost religious beliefs into public, even rising to the post of master of the royal mint, a position very much not compatible at that time of history with his personal religious beliefs. His most important discoveries in physics are his theory of light, colors and refraction, his theory of force, momentum and motion and his gravitational theory, all of which are still taught at highschools and universities today for undergraduates in physics. In mathematics his inventions are too many to report shortly, but apart from his invention of calculus, he contributed greatly to the theory of series and partial sums, Diophantine equations and numerical analysis, all of which today are basic material which any undergraduate mathematician has to learn. Isaac Newton was on occasions challenged by mathematicians on the continent on difficult mathematical problems, correspondence by letter. Newton always answered correctly, as is illustrated by the famous problem of the "sliding bean" proposed by Poisson to Isaac Newton: Poisson very satisfied with himself having found the solution to the extremely difficult problem of fastest path of travel between two fixed points in a gravity field, challenged Newton anonymously in a letter to a mathematical journal by presenting the problem, knowing Newton would read it. This is a famous story on Isaac Newton's superb mathematical abilities, after not working in mathematics for decades, Newton being at the time mostly occupied by his own research in alchemy, he solved it during 24 hours (as reported by his servant he did not eat or sleep until he completed his answer), and presented his (correct) solution equally anonymously by letter to the journal, upon which Poisson is reported to have said: "I guess I know the lion by its claws"...Isaac Newton is generally and undisputedly regarded as the greatest and most influential mathematician of all time and also the greatest and most influential physicist of all time, possibly in the field of physics only challenged for originality by Einstein, and influence by Aristotle. In the field of mathematics, Newton is rivaled by none and challenged by none in current known history of science. A note on the controversy between modern students of science on "Who was the the greatest of Newton and Einstein", it should be said Einstein did not have to invent any new mathematical formal apparatus to formulate his groundbreaking theories, whereas Newton himself had to invent the mathematical language of calculus to formulate, develop and support his theory of gravity, a theory which was in itself in any sense as ground breaking as any of Einstein's work and theories, and likely even much more so because in Isaac Newton's time of history, it was still not commonly accepted that the same laws guide the heavens as on the earth, not to mention the concept of force "acting at a distance with no seemingly physical contact", an idea Newton came up with, which broke with all of Aristotelian physics and 2000 years of tradition. Newton did this, according to Thomas Kuhn, total shift in scientific paradigm, and he should be credited for it at least as much as all of Einstein's works and ground breaking theories. Even more so, because Isaac Newton's shift of scientific paradigm was supported in (his own) new groundbreaking developed mathematics, whereas Einsteins theories were not groundbreaking in any mathematical sense. Newtons theories and experimentally verified laws of nature were not only groundbreaking, they were completely mind-shattering to the scientific society of his time, which was still partly influenced by 2000 year old Aristotelian physics. The language and power and all-embracing importance and influence of Isaac Newton's calculus to modern science should be well known to any undergraduate student of science today, be it physics, chemistry or biology...Calculus may indeed by itself be considered one of the greatest and most crucial leaps of human mind in all history and Newton did it. A look into his mathematical texts of proofs for his calculus, shows a mind which very few if any human of today, are able to follow, but they have been verified to be correct....In short: Newton was both a genious mathematician and physicist in both theory and experiment, whereas Einstein being a genious theoretical physicist, did not make any worthwhile discoveries in mathematics, apart from some convenient notational conventions, and he was not an experimentalist at all, whereas Isaac Newton marvels in the field of experimental physics and is undisputedly one of the greatest experimentalists of history of physics and he was able to backup his own claims, he did verify his theory of gravity by data on the moons orbit, whereas Einstein had other people back up his theories with experimental tests, like Eddingtons famous experiment on relativity. Many people make the mistake of comparing Newton and Einstein "out of their times", confusing the time of Einstein's modern and abstract mathematics and physics with all its impressive and well-developed notation through centuries of development of mathematicians and physicists after Newton with what is the true core of the mind-leap of Newton's calculus and the true rigidness and clearness of Newtonian laws of physics compared to the Aristotle ideas (which Galileo proved wrong well before Newton). Suffice it to say, place Newton the genious mathematician and theoreticial physicist and genious experimentalist against Einstein the genious theoretician at a table at "scratch" where nothing is known about universe, and see who would proceed the faster...In view of both mens careers and their proven abilities there cannot be any doubt as to whom would win this kind of race, a fact also Einstein was happy to recognize many times in his life. Anyway, it remains the fact that Newton's theories remained unchallenged for 250 years, whereas Einstein's theory of relativity has remained unchallenged for less than a 100 years at time of this writing...If not the above listed facts on the achievements of Newton versus Einstein do impress, this single fact of time should, because history is the closest thing to truth we will ever have. It should be said historical research continues to discover and reveal facts about Iscaac Newton's life and thoughts even today. Finally, it may seem ironical in view of modern science of today, that most of Isaac Newton's time, efforts and thought and money were dedicated to his research in alchemy, a field of his time which did not make it into science, but nevertheless may be said to be part of the very early and naive probings into the laws of nature of what later turned into the science of chemistry (a field Einstein never touched with his own hands, where as Newton probably died from his long and personal experimental experience with it) ...Isaac Newton's long and utmost serious efforts into alchemy does not reduce Isaac Newton's genious in science at all, rather it adds to it, as it is additional proof that his mind was being bent on ever seeking to uncover the unknowns of Nature (although driven very much by his own religious motives and ideas as most deeply and clearly manifest in his interest for alchemy). Upon his death, his body was found to contain large amounts of mercury, the key element of the lore of alchemy. It is probable his active experimental work into alchemy through several decades lead to his weakened health and ultimately death. Science still waits for a person of his true mathematical genious combined with his deep interest for physics and chemistry, his sound intuition, his patient endurance, his originality, his inventiveness and his outstanding experimental abilities, to appear again.

Who taught Galileo galilei?

Galileo's father, Vencenzio, was a mathematician as well as a musician. He is the one who taught Galileo until the age of ten. After that, the family moved to Florence, where Galileo attended a monastery where he learned Latin and Greek. He also studied religion and music.

When did Louis Pasteur make his contribution?

Timeline of Historical Events Involving Louis Pasteur1822Louis Pasteur born at 2 a.m. in Dole (Jura), as the third child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui.1823Louis Pasteur is baptized.1825Birth of Louis Pasteur's sister, Josephine.1826The Pasteur family moves to Marnoz (Jura), where Jean-Joseph rents a tannery.Birth of Clermont-Ferrand of Marie Laurent, Pasteur's future wife.Birth of Louis Pasteur's sister, Emilie.1827The Pasteur family moves to a tannery on the banks of the Cuisance River at Arbois. Jean-Joseph buys this property in 1833 and lives there until his death.Louis Pasteur draws his first pastel at the age of 13 (Dessin et Pastels).1829Emilie contracts encephalitis, which leaves her permanently impaired.Student at École Primaire, Arbois.1831Pasteur enters primary school (Student at Collège d'Arbois).Pasteur witnesses the treatment of several victims of bites by rabid animals; the epidemic causes sixteen deaths in the region, four of them in the immediate vicinity of Arbois.1838Pasteur leaves for Paris in the company of his friend Jules Vercel; he is to continue his schooling as a boarding student at the Institution Barbet (3, impasse des Feuillantines). Suffering from extreme homesickness, he returns to Arbois by mid-November. On his return he executes his first pastels.1839Pasteur becomes a student in the final class of the collège royal of Besançon. Here he meets Jules Marcou and Charles Chappuis, son of hte notary of Saint-Vit.Student at Collège Royal de Besançon.1840Pasteur receive his bachelor of arts (Baccalaureate) degree at Besançon.Pasteur is appointed teaching assistant at the Besançon collège. At the same time, he pursues his studies of special mathematics.1841Pasteur fails the examination for the bachelor of science degree. He enrolls for a second year of special mathematics at Besançon.1842Pasteur receives his bachelor of science (Baccalaureate) degree at Dijon, despite a mediocre grade in chemistry.He qualifies for the competitive entrance examination to the Ecole normale supérieure, but since he is ranked fifteenth of twenty-two candidates, he prefers not to take the oral examination and to put off a second attempt until the following year.He pursues his studies in Paris, residing once again at the Institution Barbet. At the same time he takes courses at the Lycée Saint-Louis and attends lectures of Jean-Baptiste Dumas at the Sorbonne.1843Pasteur receives a first prize for physics at the lycée Saint-Louis and is ranked fourth in the entrance competition for the Ecole normale supérieure.Pasteur attends Jean Baptiste Dumas' chemistry courses at the Sorbonne.1844Pasteur enters the Ecole Normale.Biot presents to the Académie des sciences Mitscherlich's note on the sodium and ammonia paratartrates and tartrates that would be the starting point of Pasteur's career.1845Pasteur obtains the degree of licencié ès sciences (M.S.). He attracts the attention of Balard, who has just been appointed professor at the Ecole normale supérieure.1846Pasteur places third in the agrégationin physical science. He is appointed professor of physics t the collège of Tournon (Ardèche), but Balard chooses him as his graduate assistant (préparateur) for his chemistry courses. Pasteur will work in his laboratory until 1848.Pasteur meets Auguste Laurent, with whom he begins to study crystallography in the laboratory of his professorAntoine Jérome Balard.1847Pasteur defends his theses in chemistry and physics before the Faculty of Sciences in Paris. His physics thesis:A study of the phenomena related to the rotational polarization of liquids. Application of the rotational polarization of liquids to the resolution of several problems in chemistry. His chemistry thesis: Research on the saturation capacity of arsenius acid. Studies on the potassium-, sodium-, and ammonia-arsenites.1848Pasteur's first report to the Académie des sciences (presented by Balard): On the relation that can exist between crystalline form and chemical composition, and on the cause of rotational polarization. This is Pasteur's first major discovery: molecular asymmetry.Pasteur's mother dies at Arbois.Pasteur is appointed professor of physics at the lycée of Dijon.He is appointed acting professor of chemistry at Stasbourg University.1849Pasteur arrives in Strasbourg.Second report on molecular dissymmetry to the Académie des sciences.Pasteur marries Marie Laurent, daughter of the rector of Strasbourg University.Pasteur begins a 3 year fundamental study of tartaric and partartaric acids.1850Birth of Pasteur's first child, Jeanne.Note to the Académie des sciences on his work of 1849 (the composition of racemic acid).Death (at age 25) of Pasteur's sister Joséphine.1851The Pharmaceutical Society announces a competition and offers a prize to the person who will establish whether tartaric acids containing fully formed racemic acid exist and who will provide a precise account of the modalities by which tartaric acid changes into racemic acid.Communication of a paper on aspartic and malic acids to the Académie des sciences.Birth of Pasteur's son Jean-Baptiste.1852Pasteur meets Mitscherlich and Rose in Biot's laboratory at the Collège de France.Journey to Germany. Pasteur visits Mr. Fikentscher's factory at Zwickau (Saxony).Pasteur arrives in Vienna and visits several tartaric acid factories in Austria.Arrival in Prague.Return to Strasbourg.Pasteur is appointed to the chair of chemistry in the Faculty of Science of Strasbourg University.1853Note to the Académie des sciences on the origin of racemic acid.Death of Pasteur's sister Emilie at the Ursuline convent in Voiteur (Jura).Pasteur informs Biot that he is able to transform tartaric acid into racemic acid.Biot communicates this discovery to the Académie des sciences.Pasteur is made a chevalier in the imperial order of hte Légion d'honneur.Birth of Pasteur's daughter Cécile.Pasteur receives the prize of the Pharmaceutical Society for the synthesis of racemic acid (1,500 francs).1854Report to the Académie des sciences on dimorphism in optically active substances.Pasteur takes up his functions as professor of chemistry and dean of the new Faculty of Science at Lille.1855Communication of a paper on amyl alcohol to the Académie des sciences.Pasteur publishes his work titled, Mémoire sur l'alcool amylique on August 20.Begins his research on fermentation.1856Publication on the isomorphism of active and inactive substances exposed to polarized light.First meeting with E. Bigo, an industrialist of Lille, who asks Pasteur's advice concerning the prodeuction of beet root alcohol. Beginning of the work on fermentation.Pasteur becomes a candidate for the Académie des sciences, where a vacancy has occurred in the section of mineralogy and geology.Pasteur receives the Rumford Medal of the London Royal Society for his work in crystallography.1857Pasteur loses the election to the Académie des sciences to Gabriel Delafosse.Publication of a paper on the so-called lactic fermentation by the Society for the Advancement of Science of Lille. This publication can be considered the birth certificate of microbiology.Pasteur is appointed administrator and director of scientific studies at the École Normal Supérieure in Paris.Presentation of a second paper (on alcoholic fermentation) to the Académie des sciences.1858Pasteur installs a laboratory in the attic of the Ecole normale in Paris.Paper on the fermentation of tartaric acid.Birth of Pasteur's daughter Marie-Louise.Pasteur, vacationing at Arbois, examines diseased wines and observes the presence of germs analogous to those found in lactic fermentation.Félix-Archimède Pouchet, director of the Muséum d'histoire naturelle of Rouen, publishes his Note on the plant and animal proto-organisms born spontaneously in artificial air or oxygen gas, which becomes the starting point for Pasteur's work on spontaneous generation.Pasteur presents a paper titled, Mémoire sur la fermentation appelée lactique (on lactic fermentation) to the Académie des sciences.1859Pasteur's letter to Pouchet concerning spontaneous generation.Pasteur's daughter Jeanne (age 9) dies at Arbois.Pasteur receives the prize for experimental physiology of the Académie des sciences.1860Publication of his 43 page paper titled, Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique (on alcoholic fermentation).Pasteur presents the first detailed report on his research on molecular dissymmetry to the Chemical Society of Paris.Pasteur obtains the prize in experimental physiology for hte year 1859 (prix Montyon) given by the Académie des sciences following the report submitted by Claude Bernard.Second report on molecular dissymmetry to the Chemical Society of Paris.Air samples collected at Arbois for the study of spontaneous generation.1861Discovery of anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) life: butyric acid fermentation.Lecture on the doctrine of spontaneous generation to the Chemical Society of Paris.Lecture to the Chemical Society of Paris titled, On Organized Corpuscles That Exist in the Atmosphere;Examination of the Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation.Publication in the bulletin of the Chemical Society of the complete set of Pasteur's findings on acetic fermentation (vinegar).Pasteur receives the Jecker Prize (Prix Jecker) of the Académie des sciences for his work on spontaneous generation (report submitted by E. Chevreuil).1862Death of Biot.Paper on the mycodermas presented to the Académie des sciences. Role of these organisms in acetic fermentation explained.Paper on the industrial process for vinegar production presented to the Académie des sciences.Pasteur receives the Prix Alhumbert for his research on spontaneous generation (report submitted by C. Bernard).Pasteur, along with Claude Bernard, completes the world's first pasteurization test.Pasteur is elected to the Académie des sciences (mineralogy section).1863Jule Raulin is appointed Pasteur's graduate assistant (agrégé-préparateur) in the laboratory of the rue d'Ulm.Napoleon III asks Pasteur to study wine and its diseases.Paper to the Académie des sciences on the destruction of plant and animal matter after death.Paper to the Académie des sciences on putrefaction.Birth of Pasteur's daughter Camille.Pasteur is appointed professor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts of Paris (a position he will keep until 1867).Paper on the role of atmospheric oxygen in vinification.1864First class at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.Lecture given in the series of "Scientific Evenings at the Sorbonne" on spontaneous generation.Continued debate with Pouchet, Joly, and Musset.Publishes paper, On Acetic Fermentation.Lectures at the Sorbonne: Spontaneous Generation.Paper on the diseases of wine delivered to the Académie des sciences.Pasteur sets up a laboratory for the study of wine at Arbois.1865Paper on a practical process for preserving and improving wine presented to the Académie des sciences. Beginning of pasteurization.Pasteur leaves for Alès, where he is to study the diseases of the silkworm.Jean-Joseph Pasteur (father) dies at Arbois at the age of 74.Paper on the heating of wine.Camille Pasteur (daughter) dies at the age of two.First observations on the diseases of silkworms.Outbreak of a cholera epidemic in Paris. Pasteur is appointed to a commission charged with investigating the disease.Pasteur is invited to the Palace of Compiègne; has personal contact with Napleon III and Eugénie.1866Cécile Pasteur dies at Chambéry at age twelve.Paper on the diseases of the silkworm.Publication of the Etudes sur le vin (Studies on Wine), which he dedicates to Emperor Napoleon III. Controversy over the priority of the techniques for heating wine.Pasteur publishes an article on the scientific achievements of Claude Bernard in the Moniteur.A second paper on the silkworm.1867Lister reports on chemical asepsis.Pasteur studies flacherieat Alès.Pasteur receives one of the Grand Prizes of the World's Fair for his work on vinous fermentation.Pasteur expells the student Lallier from the Ecole normal (in connection with the "Affaire Sainte-Beuve").Unrest at the Ecole normale. Closing of the school. Resignation of the directors, including Pasteur.Pasteur requests and obtains the creation of a laboratory for physiological chemistry at the Ecole normale. At the same time, he succeeds Balard in the chair of organic chemistry at the Sorbonne. Lecture on vinegar making given at Orleans to the manufacturers of the region.Pasteur resigns his positionat the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.1868Pasteur receives a degree of Doctor of Medicine honoris causa from Bonn University.Publication of the pamphlet Le Budget de la science.Publication of the Etudes sur le vinaigre (Studies on Vinegar).Continuation of the work on the diseases of silkworm at Alès.Pasteur is promoted to commander of the Légion d'honneur.Pasteur suffers a first stroke.1869Research on the diseases of the silkworm is resumed at Alès and Saint-Hippolyte-du-Fort. Continues research in the Gard region and then at the Villa Vicentina in Austria.Debate on the heating of wine with Vergnette-Lamotte.Beginning of Pasteur's stay at VIlla Vicentina near Trieste, an imperial estate where he is to run an experimental silkworm farm at the request of Napoleon III.Report on the teaching of science in France.1870Publication of the Etudes sur la maladie des vers à soie (Studies of Silkworm Diseases).Pasteur leaves the Tyrol.Returns to France via Vienna, Munich (interview with Liebig), and Stuttgart.Stay at Strasbourg.Pasteur is appointed senator of the Empire, but the decree is never promulgated because of the war.Pasteur leaves Paris for Arbois.1871After learning of the bombardment of the Muséum of Paris by the Prussians, Pasteur, who is living in Arbois, returns his diploma of doctor honoris causa to Bonn University.Pasteur travels from Arbois to Pontarlier in search of his son Jean-Baptiste, a corporal in Bourbaki's army.Stays at Genva, then Lyon.Stay at Clermon-Ferrand with Duclaux. Visit to the Kuhn brewery at Chamalières. First research about beer.Pasteur begins his research on fermentation of beer with Émile Duclaux in Clermont Ferrand.Pasteur takes out a patent for a special beer-making process.Pasteur travels to London to pursue his study of beer at the great English breweries. He meets Tyndall, who mentions Lister to him.1872Dispute with Frémy on the origin of the ferments.Renewed dispute with Vergnette-Lamotte.Pasteur applies for early retirement as professor at the Sorbonne.1873Pasteur is elected to the Académie de médicine.Pasteur is made commander in the Brazilian Order of the Rose.Having spent time at the Tourtel Brewery at Tantonville (Meurthe-et-Moselle), Pasteur makes public a new process that prevents the alteration of beer.1874First letters between Lister and Pasteur.The National Assembly votes to grant Pasteur a National Reward (committee headed by Paul Bert).Pasteur speaks at the award ceremony at the lycée of Arbois.Jean-Baptiste Pasteur marries Jeanne Boutroux.The Royal Society of London awards its Copley medal to Pasteur for his work on fermentation.1875Installation of a laboraty for the study of fermentation at Arbois.Charles Chamberland joins the laboratory in the rue d'Ulm.1876Pasteur loses the election for the senate seat.Correspondence with Tyndall about spontaneous generation.Publication of the Etudes sur la bière (Studies on Beer).Paper about the fermentation of urine.Pasteur represents France at the International Silk-Grower's Convention in Milan.1877Dispute with Colin over the virulence of anthrax blood.Paper on anthrax presented to the Académie des sciences.Paper on septicemia.Discovers the vibrion septique.1878Death of Claude Bernard.Debates with Colin on the etiology of anthrax.Journey to Italy (Milan, Lago Maggiore, Lugano).Note on chicken cholera.Experiments with anthrax conducted at Jules Maunory's farm near Chartres with the help of the veterinarian Vinsot.Pasteur is promoted to grand officer of the Légion d'honneur.Pasteur refutes a posthumous article of Claude Bernard on alcoholic fermenation.Dispute with BerthelotEmile Roux joins Pasteur's laboratory.Research on gangrene, septicemia, and childbirth (puerperal) fever.Publishes Germ Theory and Its Application to Medicine and Surgery.1879Debate on the plague in the Near East.Paper on puerperal septicemia.Discovery of a vaccine obtained from attenuated cultures.Debates with Colin on the etiology of anthrax.Marie-Louise Pasteur (daughter) marries René Vallery-Radot.1880Pasteur is appointed to the Central Society of Veterinary Medicine.Paper on virulent diseases, in which the principle of virus vaccines is enunciated for the first time.Publishes the paper On the Attenuation of the Chicken Cholera Virus.Pasteur successfully isolates the bacterium pneumococcus.Paper in which the germ theory is extended to the etiology of boils, osteomyelitis, and puerperal fever.Paper on the role of earthworms in the propogation of anthrax.Death of Pasteur's sister Virginie Vichot.Pasteur threatens to resign from the Académie de médicine.Birth of Pasteur's granddaughter Camille Vallery-Radot.At the Académie de médicine, Jule Guérin challenges Pasteur to a duel.Pasteur begins his research on rabies.1881Paper on the attenuation of viruses followed by renewed virulence.Roux inoculates rabies into dogs by means of trepanation.Experiments with anthrax vaccination at the farm of Pouilly-le-Fort near Melun.Death of Emile Littré.Reports on the experiments of Pouilly-le-Fort to the Académie française left vacant by the death of Littré.Death of Sainte-Claire Deville.Pasteur receives the Grand-Croix of the Légion d'honneur.Paper on the virus vaccines (for chicken cholera and anthrax) presented at the International Congress of Medicine in London.Studies swine erysipelas in Bollène.Pasteur journeys to Bordeaux to study yellow fever.Pasteur is elected to Littré's seat at the Académie française.1882Pasteur is received at the Académie française; speeches by Ernest Renan and Pasteur.Antianthrax vaccinames at Nîmex.Paper on the attenuation of viruses to the Public Health Congress at Geneva. Dispute with Robert Koch.Pasteur's nephew Adrien Loir goes to work in the laboratory of the rue d'Ulm as assistant préparateur.Paper on cattle pleuropneumonia.Pasteur studies swine erysipelas at Bollène.Open letter to Robert Koch (published in January 1883).First dog made refractory to rabies.1883Discovery of the agent of swine erysipelas.Disputes with Michel Peter.Response to the criticism of anthrax vaccination voiced by the vommittee of the Veterinary School of Turin.Second National Reward granted to Pasteur (committee headed by P. Bert and J. Méline).Pasteur speaks at Dole on the occasion of the placing of a commemorative plaque on the house of his birth.Pasteur dispatches Roux, Straus, Nocard, and Thuillier to Egypt for the purpose of studying cholera.Louis Thullier dies in Alexandria.First vaccination against swine erysipelas with an attenuated virus (developed in collaboration with L. Thullier).1884Publication of the first biography of Pasteur: Histoire d'un savant par un ignorant, written (but not signed) by René Vallery-Radot.Paper on rabies. Experimentation with the two-necked flask.Death of Jean-Baptiste Dumas.Pasteur travels to Edinburgh for the tricentennial of the University.Additional paper on rabies.Experiments with refractory dogs for the rabies commission.Straus and Roux dispatched to Toulon to conduct research on an outbreak of cholera, whose vibrio has been discovered by Koch.Paper to the International Congress of Medicine in Copenhagen on the general principle of vaccination and preventive methods against rabies in humans.A laboratory for the study of rabies, complete with animal pens, is set up at Villeneuve-l'Etang in the park of Saint-Cloud (village of Marnes-la-Coquette).Letter of Pasteur to Pedro II of Brazil concerning the experimental use of the antirabies vaccine on humans.1885First trials of the antirabies vaccine in humans.Oversees the administration of the first vaccination against rabies given to a human, the young Joseph Meister.Papers on the methods of preventing rabies after bites have occurred presented to the Académie des sciences and subsequently to the Académie de médicine.Antirabies treatment administered to Louise Pelletier.Death of Louise Pelletier.Joseph Bertrand delivers his inaugural address at the Académie française (eulogy of Jean-Baptiste Dumas).Antirabies treatment administered to four American children sent from New Jersey.1886First donations destined for the creation of an antirabies institute.Official opening of a subscription for the founding of an antirabies vaccination institute.Antirabies vaccination of nineteen Russians who have come from Smolensk.Fundraising gala for the Institut Pasteur at the Trocadéro Palace organized by the "Scientia" Society.Birth of Pasteur's grandson Louis Pasteur Vallery-Radot.Gamaleïa and Metchnikoff set up an antirabies laboratory in Odessa.Alexandre Yersin becomes Roux's assistant.Antirabies treatment of Jules Rouyer.Jules Rouyer dies. The child's father sues; the case is dismissed by the court in January 1887.Pasteur leaves Paris for a long stay at Villa Bischoffsheim in Bordighera (Italy).1887First issue of the Annales d l'Institut Pasteur, a new review edited by Duclaux. Lively controversies over rabies carried out by Peter and certain foreign journalists.Earthquake on the French and Italian Riviera. Pasteur leaves Bordighera and goes to Arbois, where he stays until April.Grancher founds the Bulletin médical. Purchase of a building site in the rue Dutot (20th arrondissement of Paris), where the Institut Pasteur is to be built.Establishtment of the Paris Institut Pasteur and official statutes.Pasteur elected perpetual secretary of the Académie des sciences.Second attack of paralysis, followe by recovery.Pasteur's letter to the editor of Le Temps describing a procedure for the massive destruction of rabbits in response to an inquiry of the government of New South Wales.Successful completion of the experimental infection of rabbits with the chicken cholera microbe on the property of the widow at Pommery at Reims.1888Loir is sent to Australia to head a program of rabbit eradication.Inauguration of the Paris Institut Pasteur. (November 14)1889Pasteur speaks at the enveiling of a statue of Jean-Baptiste Dumas at Alès; one of that town's streets is name for Pasteur.L. Bonnat Painting of Louis Pasteur and his granddaughter is revealed at L' Exposition Universelle.Louis Pasteur's pupil Paul Vuillemin coins the term "antibiotic" from the word antibiosis: process by which life could be used to destroy life1890Albert Calmette becomes Roux's assistant at the Institut Pasteur.1891Founding of an Institut Pasteur at Saigon under the direction of Albert Calmette.1892A village in Algeria (near Constantine) is given Pasteur's name.Pasteur's jubilee celebrated at the Sorbonne.1893Creation of an Institut Pasteur at Tunis.1894Address given at Lille on the occasion of a special meeting of the Society for the Advancement of Science.Yersin identifies the plague bacillus at Hong Kong.Pasteur's last stay at Arbois.Pasteur suffers another stroke, which weakens him greatly.1895Reception for the students of the Ecole normale at the Institut Pasteur to celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the school.Pasteur refuses to accept the Prussian Order of Merit.Pasteur leaves the Institut and is driven to Villeneuve-l'Etang.Pasteur dies September 28th at 4:20 P.M.State funeral; mass at Notre-Dame of Paris.

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