There are numerous exceptions and exemptions regarding whether a copyright is possible, what it covers, and whether various uses are allowed without any license from the owner.
Example of non-copyrightable exception: Copyright does not protect ideas, concepts or principles.
Example of exempt performance: It is not a copyright infringement to perform a copyrighted song in public for no profit and where the public has no direct or indirect admission charge. 17 USC § 110(4).
Example of exempt copies: it is not an infringement for the owner of a copy of a computer program to make another copy of that computer program for "archival purposes only and that all archival copies are destroyed in the event that continued possession of the computer program should cease to be rightful." 17 USC § 117(a).
Example of exempt works: "The copyright in an architectural work that has been constructed does not include the right to prevent the making, distributing, or public display of pictures, paintings, photographs, or other pictorial representations of the work, if the building in which the work is embodied is located in or ordinarily visible from a public place." 17 USC § 120.
Under US copyright law the two mot commonly used exceptions and the right of first sale and the "fair use" exception. Fair use allows the use of a portion of a copyrighted work for purposes of news reporting, criticism, scholarship, etc. The right of first sale allows someone to resell a copyrighted work without permission as long as they do not retain copies of the original.
There are countries in which copyright laws are not enacted. In any other country, there is no exception, although the copyright law itself may include exceptions or limitations. But those are exceptions to VIOLATION of the law, not to the law itself.
"Fair use" is an exception for a use that would normally be infringing.
Absolutely. In the US, for example, the exclusive rights conferred by copyright law take up about half a page, and the exceptions take up nearly 100 pages.
The creator may be bound by an earlier agreement (for example, a work-made-for-hire), or may choose to sell or otherwise transfer the rights.
The vast majority of US copyright law consists of exceptions to the exclusive rights. Three examples might be fair use, reproduction by libraries, and first sale.
It is probably copyright infringement. There are exceptions, though.
If the photo is altered for comedic effect, it may be used under the copyright exceptions for satire. However, no alteration can remove the copyright from a photo.
Not much. The Copyright Act defines the exclusive rights of the creator of an artistic work, as well as exceptions to those rights.
Unless your use falls under one of the exceptions to copyright protection (such as "fair use") the safe answer is... none.
In the US law, they're referred to as limitations, defenses, and exceptions.
Nothing. Copyright law includes a huge number of limitations, defenses, and exceptions, many of which allow certain unlicensed educational uses.
Nearly all of it. Shareware and Freeware would be exceptions.
Absolutely. In the US, for example, the exclusive rights conferred by copyright law take up about half a page, and the exceptions take up nearly 100 pages.
It's not strictly a paradox; fair use is a clause in the copyright law allowing certain limited unlicensed uses. It is only one of many limitations, defenses, and exceptions to the exclusive rights of the copyright holder.
Creative Commons licenses do not affect exceptions and limitations to copyright laws as this was already taken into account when the Creative Commons license was drafter. You can find more information from the Creative Commons section of the Wikipedia website.
Without the many limitations, defenses, and exceptions included in copyright law, it would prevent reasonable educational uses, commentary, and most importantly free speech.
Not entirely, but all countries' copyright laws include a provision allowing certain limited exceptions for education. A good overview of US laws is linked below.