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What is an Arshakuni?
An Arshakuni is another name for an Arsacid, a member of the Arsacid Dynasty which ruled the Parthian Empire between 247BC and 224AD, Armenia between 54 and 428, and Iberia and Caucasian Albania.
What was the language of the Parthian Arsacid empire?
The official language of the Parthian Empire was Parthian, which is a Middle-Iranian Language (whereas Farsi is a Modern-Iranian Language). Aramaic was also commonly spoken as a vernacular in the western part of the Empire.
Who ruled the Persians in their early years?
Persia, had three pre-Islamic empires: the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 B.C.), which was ruled by the Achaemenid dynasty; the Parthian Empire (247 BC - 224 A.D.), which was ruled by the Arsacid Dynasty, established by Arsaces I (a leader of the Parni of central Asia who conquered Parthia in north-eastern Iran); the Sassanian Empire (224-651), which was ruled by the Sassanian dynasty.
What are some important leaders of the Persian empire?
There are five major ancient periods of the Persian Empire A/ The Medean Empire from 756 to 559 BCE and rulers Deices, Phraortes, Madius, Cyaxares and Astyages. B/ The Achaemenid Empire from 550 to 330 BCE first ruler Cyrus who defeated Astyages and established the Achaemenid House that interfered with the political developments in the Helladic region and were defeated by Alexander the Great. The most famous leaders of the Achaemenid were Cyrus II the Great, Darius I who invated Greece [battle of Marathon], Xerxes I who invated Greece [battle of Thermopylae and Salamis] and Darius III who lost the Empire to Alexander III the Great. C/ The Hellenistic Persia from 330 to 250 BCE under the rule of the Seleucid Dynasty D/ The Parthians and the Arsacid dynasty from 250 to 226 BCE. E/ The Sassanid Empire from 226 BCE to 651 AD/ CE and the Sassanian Dynasty. After that year Persia was conquered by the Muslims and it will be part of the Ottoman Empire and later part of the Mongolian Empire.
Why did the Parthians rely more on Iranian traditions in religious and cultural afairs during the last century of their rule?
This is a very good question and the answer is long but I will try to be brief and to the point. In simple terms, the early years of Parthian rule were difficult because the Parthians (meaning horsemen) who were actually Scythians of the Parni tribe were seen as nomadic barbarians whose rule was considered illegitimate by the settled people of western Asia. Therefore, when they took over the lands that had once been part of the Greco-Iranian Seleucid Empire, their best chance of gaining local support was in continuing the traditions and established mores that had beein in place for generations before their arrival. Since they were rough nomads, it would have been inprudent for them to impose their ways upon the settled "civilized" population. Thus, their early inscriptions included much Greek but as time passed and Arsacid rule became legitimized, Greek or rather western culture was seen as an intrusive, aggressive alien force pushing itself into Asia. This became more pronounced with the appearance of the Romans on the political scene, who were, by an large, hellenized westerners seeking to repeat Alexander's conquests. The Parthians eventually took on the role of defenders of the locals against foreign hordes and eventually they championed the local traditions, especially Zoroastrianism which was the main religion-albeit in varied forms from region to region-among the predominantly Iranian people of the lands they ruled.
What has the author Brigitte Musche written?
Brigitte Richter has written: 'Frauen um Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy' -- subject(s): Relations with women 'Vitellius, ein Zerrbild der Geschichtsschreibung' -- subject(s): Biography, Emperors, History, Rome Civil War, 68-69
When did greek power weaken?
Apart from Egypt, Greek power weakened from 238 BC to 63 BC as a result of the Roman-Seleucid War (191-188 BC), the Seleucid-Parthian War (238-129 BC), Rome's annexation of mainland Greece in 146 BC) and Rome's annexation of Syria in 63 BC). Following Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire, his conquests were divided between his generals. This led to the creation of the Kingdom of Pergamon in western Turkey, the Seleucid Empire, (which covered south-eastern Turkey, Iran, apart from its north-western part, Afghanistan, western Pakistan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Ptolemaic Kingdom (Egypt, Judea, Cyprus and parts of Turkey). The Seleucid Empire was challenged by the rising power of the Romans and the Parthians. The latter were a people from north-eastern Iran who, under the Arsacid dynasty, restored the Persian Empire at the expense of the Seleucids in the 109-year long Seleucid-Parthian War (298-129 BC). The turning point for the weakening of Seleucid power was their defeat by the Romans in the Roman-Seleucid War (191-188 BC). The Romans had got involved in mainland Greece when they fought the First Macedonian War (against the Kingdom of Macedon, the largest and dominant state in mainland Greece, with the help of allied Greek states. Rome fought the war against the Seleucids to defend her Greek allies when the Seleucids tried to expand into western Turkey and attacked mainland Greece. Defeat in this war broke Seleucid power and the Seleucids became unable to stop the conquests of most of its lands by the Parthians. In 146 BC Rome annexed mainland Greece, which became the Roman Province of Macedonia. After this the Romans expanded into Turkey and Armenia (214-205 BC) which in those days covered most of eastern Turkey). In 63 BC they annexed Syria, which was all that was left of the dying and civil war-torn Seleucid Empire. The Romans annexed Egypt on 30 BC.
Who is the current dictator of Iran?
The origins of the term "Shah" go back to ancient Avestan "Kshathra" or Kshatrya" (Sanskrit) which means ruler of domain. The root of this word can also be found in the Iranian month of Shahrivar, itself a modern version of Kshathra Vairya, the Zoroastrian arch-angel of ideal dominion and guardian of metals and power among men.Various dynasties used the term "Shah" to describe the rulers of their realm, including the Achamenid Persians, Arsacid Parthians and Sassanian Persians. The bactrian Kingdom ruling eastern Iranian land sin the time of Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) used the term "Kavi" for "King". So Shah is not an exact translation of "King" but more so a ruler of a domain or dominion.In medieval Islamic times, Zoroastrian princes and rulers who continued to defy the Islamic Caliphate were known as "Sepahbodan" or leaders of armies, while Muslim rulers used the title of "Emir" and not Shah, until the Daylamite Buyids.So it continued until the period from 1905 through 1911 when a constitutional monarchy was put in place, but it was overthrown in 1925. At that time, Reza Shah overthrew the dynasty to establish his own, and from that dynasty came the man we generally connect with the title. It is His Imperial Majesty, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, that we usually refer to when we speak of the ruling monarch of Iran.The Iranian Revolution of 11 February, 1979 overthrew the Shah of Iran and the Pahlavi dynasty.Shah is a word for a king, from the Persian language. Over the years in the past, there were many shahs.The last Shah was Mohammad Rezā Shāh Pahlavi, who was overthrown in 1979.
Who did the Armenian's fight for independence?
Armenia lies in the highlands surrounding the Biblical mountains of Ararat. The original Armenian name for the country was Hayk, later Hayastan (Armenian: Հայաստան), translated as the land of Haik, and consisting of the name Haik and the suffix '-stan' (land). The name Armenia was given to the country by the surrounding states, and it is traditionally derived from Armenak or Aram (the great-grandson of Haik's great-grandson, and another leader who is, according to Armenian tradition, the ancestor of all Armenians). In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire (at the height of its power), Mitanni (South-Western historical Armenia), and Hayasa-Azzi (1600-1200 BC). Soon after the Hayasa-Azzi were the Nairi (1400-1000 BC) and the Kingdom of Urartu (1000-600 BC), who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highlands. Each of the aforementioned nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people.[1] Yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. The Iron Age kingdom of Urartu (Assyrian for Ararat) was replaced by the Orontid dynasty. Following Persian and Macedonian rule, the Artaxiad dynasty from 190 BC gave rise to the Kingdom of Armenia which rose to the peak of its influence under Tigranes II before falling under Roman rule. In 301, Arsacid Armenia was the first sovereign nation to accept Christianity as a state religion. The Armenians later fell under Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic hegemony, but reinstated their independence with the Bagratuni Dynasty kingdom of Armenia. After the fall of the kingdom in 1045, and the subsequent Seljuk conquest of Armenia in 1064, the Armenians established a kingdom in Cilicia, where they prolonged their sovereignty to 1375. Greater Armenia was later divided between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. Armenians then suffered in the genocide that was inflicted on them by the Ottomans. As a result, 1.5 million Armenians were murdered and a large number were dispersed throughout the world via Syria and Lebanon. Armenia, from then on corresponding to much of Eastern Armenia, once again gained independence in 1918, with the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Armenia, and then in 1991, with the Republic of Armenia.
In Zoroastrianism the supreme evil spirit?
In the early stages of the religion, the cosmic dualism that was canonized at the time of the Arsacid parthians and Sassanid Persians was absent. The main dichotomy seemed to have bene between Asha (righteousness and truth) and Drugh or Druj (lie). The content of the Gathas however (being the oldest part of the Avesta and comprising the original work of Zarathushtra) remain unclear due to the difficulty of the Avestan language and its remote antiquity. Various translators have argued for dualistic, monotheistic and even patheistic tendencies. This ambiguity perhaps reflects the early stage of Zoroastrianism prior to its canonization in later times. Arguments in favor of all can certainly be made. Most translators and scholars however agree that the earlier stages of Zoroastrianism seem more concerned with an ethical dualism represented by a personal inner struggle to overcome the negative aspects of the self. That still remains unclear however as various deities or "angels", assigned to oversee creation and lead the righteous to salvation and enlightenment are antagonized by their "opposite numbers" whose sources does not stem from Ahura Mazda and their origin remains unclear. The cosmic dualism that was later assigned to Zoroastrianism from foreign travellers, observers and historians in ancient times ranging from Greeks, Armenians, Syrians and Romans, evolved sometime in late Achamenid times and possibly in the Seleucid period. Some believe that Babylonian religion had a deep impact on the development of the cosmic dualism that saw the universe as a battleground between forces of light and darkness, manifested at every level of creation down to the most primitive lifeforms. Dualism however is present in the Gathas though not as pervasive as in the Younger Avesta. One is constantly reminded by Zarathushtra of the right path as opposed to the wrong one; of the bliss of paradise of house of song as opposed to abode of darkness; of the benevolent immortals and lords (Asuras) as opposed to the bad divinities (Daevas); of the good farmer as opposed to the bad nomad who plunders and wages war. Whereas early Zoroastrianism saw Ahura Mazda as uncontested and the dichotomy being between Spenta Maynu and Angra Maynu, later centuries saw the evolution into a full scale battle between Ahura Mazda's creation and assistants and Angra Maynu's miscreations. To resolve the issue of dualism, various sects later evolved and tried to resolve the issue of dualism by assigning to Zurvan-immortal time- the origin of both light and dark, good and evil. One sect, known as the Gayomardian saw evil as arising from Ahura Mazda or Yazdan (God)' s own self-doubt and thus again assigned to the same source the origin of light and dark.
Monastic religion of Persia?
The ancient Iranians separated from the Indo-Aryan branch around 4,700 years ago. Since then, they followed a religion similar to Hinduism, with gods that could find parallels in the Hindu pantheon as well as divinities that were proper to the Irnaians alone. The ancient Iranians who lived on the steppes of Central Asia followed a set of beliefs that incorporated various deities such as Mitra (Mithra or Mehr), Varuna, Verethragna (victory), Hvar Kshaethra (sun), Vayu (wind) etc... mostly nature deities but also anthropomorphic gods, that had human qualities of bravery, piety, compassion and daring. The prophet Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) preached between 3,100 and 3,400 years ago, amongst the Bronze Age Iranians (who lived from the western regions of China to the plains of Moldova) of the east, in the Kingdom of Bactira, that covered eastern Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The first convert was Kavi Vishtaspa, a king of the Kayanid dynasty (Bronze Age to Iron Age?) who championed Zoroaster's cause and helped spread the new religion throughout his Kingdom. While some Zoroastrians and scholars see him as an innovators who created a new religious system, many others however believed that he merely reformed the old Aryan pantheon and modified the already existing Mazdean religion into a belief that disfavor the anthropomorphic gods or Daevas in favor of the Asuras, while India did the exact opposite. Though some argue in favor of the first monotheism, Zoroastrian developed from an early date an ambiguous belief system that prior to its canonisation could be interpreted at times as monotheistic, dualistic, or even pantheistic with arguments in favor of all three continuing to this day. The Mede Kingdom (625-549 BC) supplanted the Kayanids and it is believed that the rulers and much of the populace followed a localized form of Zoroastrianism, judging by names of people and rulers as well as the importance of the city of Ray near modern Tehran among Zoroastrian pilgrims and travellers spreading the faith westwards. Contrary to popular belief, the Arsacid Parthians/Scythians were not purely Mithraic nor were they indifferent to religion as it was during the reign of King Balash or Valash (51-80) that Zoroastrian priests were ordered to compile Avestan religious and liturgy traditions into texts. While the early Parthians were no doubt sympathetic to the ecult of Mithra, the late Arsacids no doubt followed Zoroastrianism, at least under its contemporary form mixed with ancient Mazden beliefs. The Sassanians revived the Zoroastrian religion under various forms including its dualistic and Zurvanist forms, and for a short time, under the Mazdakite form. Zoroastrianism was once practiced widely from western China and the Tarim basin, the cities of Kasghar and Hotan to modern day Turkey and beyond. In late Sassanian times, Christianity and Manicheism made many inroads into the Persian Empire, gaining many followers, including among influential people such as nobles and priests though such conversions were viewed with disfavor. The collapse of the Sassanian Empire between 633 to 651 brought Islam to what had been Persian lands from Yemen and Oman to Pakistan and Turkmenistan. Zoroastrianism remained the religion of the majority of Iranians however, according to Jamshid Choksy, at least till the 11th century when Islam became the majority religion until today. Since 1935, a greatly shrunken core of what was Persia has become Iran.
